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Francis Rapp

"Holy Roman Empire German nation: from Otto the Great to Charles V"

In memory of my mentor Robert Foltz

Introduction

Presenting these pages to the reader, I feel some excitement. The topic covered in the book is so complex that some may even find it boring. But how can one present it clearly, without going into excess and without distorting reality? To lay the alleys of a French garden in the forest, you will have to cut down so many beautiful trees!

Indeed, the history of the German Holy Roman Empire is woven from paradoxes. Was this empire truly Holy? It began to be considered as such from the moment its rulers accepted the papacy. Was this empire Roman, if the Eternal City was considered its capital in the strict sense of the word only for a short time, to the misfortune of those who made such an attempt? And finally, this empire could not be considered purely German. By its definition, it was supposed to be comprehensive, to stand above all the peoples subject to it. Of course, the empire's connection with Germany was very strong. The Germans perceived themselves as a single nation, because, having long ago left their lands in pursuit of the idea of ​​creating great empire, they realized their commonality. However, the king they elected was not called the King of the German Nations, but the King of Rome, since he was destined to be Emperor, just as the son of the French Emperor Napoleon was one day destined to become the ruler of Rome. The German kingdom and the supranational empire are so closely connected that in German there is only one word - Reich - to designate both of these concepts, in Latin, on the contrary, they distinguish kingdom And empire.

If logic historical events seems contradictory to us, this happens because we do not perceive history as something integral, but rather look for in it those connections with a certain basic, core idea, “one of the dominant themes in the formation of humanity.” The core idea inherited by the Roman intelligentsia from the Greek philosophers was the community of people in a universal sense, the community, unity and protection of which was ensured by the state created by the Romans. After Constantine adopted Christianity, the Roman Empire ( orbis romanus) turned into a Christian empire ( orbis christianus), whose patron was God, and whose governor on earth was the emperor, combining political and religious power. When barbarian hordes destroyed the Western Roman Empire, its idealized image became even more vivid. In a world where unbridled force and cruelty dictated their laws, the memory of law and order was maintained as a guarantee of a better future. Thus was born “the myth of the Roman Christian community, which found the territory it had long dreamed of and a single faith.” The clergy fully supported this idea, since their teaching was directed to the past, which seemed to them especially beautiful for the reason that weapons in those days, as they believed, served only a just cause. In a society now ruled by military force, they felt defenseless. It was not in their power to revive the empire. And only active, powerful, insightful and ambitious rulers could understand this myth and bring it to life. Or, more correctly, try to do it, since the task was not an easy one. Difficult political conditions did not allow one to act freely, building a state that only vaguely resembled an empire, which always needed strong, knowledgeable people with exceptional abilities. These qualities, unfortunately, were not inherent in everyone and manifested themselves differently in everyone. Some rulers, succumbing to impulse, went to extremes in their desire to realize this utopia. For others, more pragmatic, it was not the size of the empire that was more important, but its power. The actions of each of them bore the imprint of their personality. The history of the empire thus became the history of its emperors.

The most famous of them, Charlemagne, it would seem, should not appear in the gallery of portraits that we are about to present to you. The Holy Empire was founded in 962, about a century and a half after his death. However, both Otto and all his successors sought to follow in his footsteps. They all wished to ascend the throne in the court church at Aachen and be crowned in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, like Charlemagne, whose coronation took place on Christmas Day 800. Memories of him turned into a legend, giving the dream of a great empire another feature that has passed through the centuries - the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe chosen people, who are destined by Providence to find unity. After the Romans, this purpose passed to the Franks. Moreover, it became impossible to lay claim to the empire without being a descendant of the most noble Frankish families. The empire almost inevitably split into two. Two cities embodied her duality - primarily Rome, but to the same extent Aachen.

And although the memory of Charlemagne survived centuries, the empire he created turned out to be short-lived. In 843 it disintegrated. Never again will the lands of the Eastern Franks, present-day Germany, and the Western Franks, present-day France, unite. Behind a short time what had previously been a single community of the West fell apart into countless principalities and kingdoms. At the beginning of the 10th century, the imperial crown was just an ornament displayed by small-scale princelings. The last time it was thrown off was in 924. Otto picked it up on February 2, 962. Lombardy and Lorraine, whose lands stretched to the Meuse, were also subordinated to him, the ruler of Eastern Frankia. The victory over the Hungarian conquerors significantly strengthened his influence, and he considered that he was worthy of reviving the empire. His possessions were very extensive, but the means to keep them in obedience remained rather average. Carolingian power east of the Rhine was limited, and in all other lands its mechanism was poorly established. The dukes who elevated Otto to the throne were by no means meek executors of his will. The ethnic diversity of the peoples that made up the empire made it difficult to govern, and even peoples who spoke the same Germanic language did not form a single nation. To replenish his treasury, Otto used his power as emperor. Like Charlemagne and all Christian emperors, he was considered God's vicegerent on earth. Both spiritual and secular power were concentrated in his hands, so he could count on the full support of the Church. The clergy constituted a certain framework of society, more like an organism devoid of nerves and bones. Many problems and dramatic situations hampered the development of this structure, which still had to survive severe trials, but the symbiosis of religion and politics turned out to be viable. Otto's successors did everything possible to preserve such a system. She contributed to the rapid development of the empire and allowed it to reach the peak of its development in the middle of the 10th century.

Francis Rapp

"The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation: from Otto the Great to Charles V"

In memory of my mentor Robert Foltz

Introduction

Presenting these pages to the reader, I feel some excitement. The topic covered in the book is so complex that some may even find it boring. But how can one present it clearly, without going into excess and without distorting reality? To lay the alleys of a French garden in the forest, you will have to cut down so many beautiful trees!

Indeed, the history of the German Holy Roman Empire is woven from paradoxes. Was this empire truly Holy? It began to be considered as such from the moment its rulers accepted the papacy. Was this empire Roman, if the Eternal City was considered its capital in the strict sense of the word only for a short time, to the misfortune of those who made such an attempt? And finally, this empire could not be considered purely German. By its definition, it was supposed to be comprehensive, to stand above all the peoples subject to it. Of course, the empire's connection with Germany was very strong. The Germans perceived themselves as a single nation, because, having long ago left their lands in pursuit of the idea of ​​​​creating a great empire, they realized their commonality. However, the king they elected was not called the King of the German Nations, but the King of Rome, since he was destined to be Emperor, just as the son of the French Emperor Napoleon was one day destined to become the ruler of Rome. The German kingdom and the supranational empire are so closely connected that in the German language there is only one word - Reich - to designate both of these concepts, in Latin, on the contrary, they distinguish kingdom And empire.

If the logic of historical events seems contradictory to us, this is because we do not perceive history as something holistic, but rather look for connections in it with a certain basic, core idea, “one of the dominant themes in the formation of humanity.” The core idea inherited by the Roman intelligentsia from the Greek philosophers was the community of people in a universal sense, the community, unity and protection of which was ensured by the state created by the Romans. After Constantine adopted Christianity, the Roman Empire ( orbis romanus) turned into a Christian empire ( orbis christianus), whose patron was God, and whose governor on earth was the emperor, combining political and religious power. When barbarian hordes destroyed the Western Roman Empire, its idealized image became even more vivid. In a world where unbridled force and cruelty dictated their laws, the memory of law and order was maintained as a guarantee of a better future. Thus was born “the myth of the Roman Christian community, which found the territory it had long dreamed of and a single faith.” The clergy fully supported this idea, since their teaching was directed to the past, which seemed to them especially beautiful for the reason that weapons in those days, as they believed, served only a just cause. In a society now ruled by military force, they felt defenseless. It was not in their power to revive the empire. And only active, powerful, insightful and ambitious rulers could understand this myth and bring it to life. Or, more correctly, try to do it, since the task was not an easy one. Difficult political conditions did not allow one to act freely, building a state that only vaguely resembled an empire, which always needed strong, knowledgeable people with exceptional abilities. These qualities, unfortunately, were not inherent in everyone and manifested themselves differently in everyone. Some rulers, succumbing to impulse, went to extremes in their desire to realize this utopia. For others, more pragmatic, it was not the size of the empire that was more important, but its power. The actions of each of them bore the imprint of their personality. The history of the empire thus became the history of its emperors.

The most famous of them, Charlemagne, it would seem, should not appear in the gallery of portraits that we are about to present to you. The Holy Empire was founded in 962, about a century and a half after his death. However, both Otto and all his successors sought to follow in his footsteps. They all wished to ascend the throne in the court church at Aachen and be crowned in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, like Charlemagne, whose coronation took place on Christmas Day 800. Memories of him turned into a legend, giving the dream of a great empire another feature that has passed through the centuries - the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe chosen people, who are destined by Providence to find unity. After the Romans, this purpose passed to the Franks. Moreover, it became impossible to lay claim to the empire without being a descendant of the most noble Frankish families. The empire almost inevitably split into two. Two cities embodied her duality - primarily Rome, but to the same extent Aachen.

And although the memory of Charlemagne survived centuries, the empire he created turned out to be short-lived. In 843 it disintegrated. Never again will the lands of the Eastern Franks, present-day Germany, and the Western Franks, present-day France, unite. In a short time, what had previously been a single community of the West fell apart into countless principalities and kingdoms. At the beginning of the 10th century, the imperial crown was just an ornament displayed by small-scale princelings. The last time it was thrown off was in 924. Otto picked it up on February 2, 962. Lombardy and Lorraine, whose lands stretched to the Meuse, were also subordinated to him, the ruler of Eastern Frankia. The victory over the Hungarian conquerors significantly strengthened his influence, and he considered that he was worthy of reviving the empire. His possessions were very extensive, but the means to keep them in obedience remained rather average. Carolingian power east of the Rhine was limited, and in all other lands its mechanism was poorly established. The dukes who elevated Otto to the throne were by no means meek executors of his will. The ethnic diversity of the peoples that made up the empire made it difficult to govern, and even peoples who spoke the same Germanic language did not form a single nation. To replenish his treasury, Otto used his power as emperor. Like Charlemagne and all Christian emperors, he was considered God's vicegerent on earth. Both spiritual and secular power were concentrated in his hands, so he could count on the full support of the Church. The clergy constituted a certain framework of society, more like an organism devoid of nerves and bones. Many problems and dramatic situations hampered the development of this structure, which still had to survive severe trials, but the symbiosis of religion and politics turned out to be viable. Otto's successors did everything possible to preserve such a system. She contributed to the rapid development of the empire and allowed it to reach the peak of its development in the middle of the 10th century.

Later this magnificent structure began to crumble. The popes realized that they had a responsibility to the entire Christian world and that serious abuses were undermining it. To change the situation, complete freedom of action was required. It was not enough to put at the head of the empire a certain secular ruler who would constantly interfere in the affairs of the church. A situation in which the emperor would claim to be the new Messiah and appoint bishops according to his own discretion was absolutely unacceptable. What annoyed the pope most was that the emperor had unshakable power. Conflict was inevitable; the fight became merciless. The unhealthy situation in the state threatened him with death. After half a century of bitter struggle, agreement was reached. The Empire emerged from the crisis significantly weakened. Prelates ceased to be officials, turning into vassals. The state no longer had the right to demand absolute submission from them. Frederick Hohenstaufen, nicknamed Barbarossa, learned from these changes and introduced a clearly organized feudal system, which became one of the pillars on which the monarchy rested. The clergy occupied their niche in it, and the empire began to be called Sacred. But Barbarossa wanted to take advantage of the wealth that abounded in Italy. The marriage of his son Henry VI with the Norman heiress in Sicily was supposed to provide Hohenstaufen with power on the peninsula. This decision was made despite the desire of the Lombard cities for independence, with which the popes, who did not want to fall into the steel pincers, entered into a strong alliance. The premature death of Henry VI and the troubled times that followed allowed the Holy See to achieve unprecedented opportunities, leaving the emperor only the rights of Peter's heir. Taking as a basis the Sicilian state, which he inherited from his mother, Barbarossa’s grandson Frederick II, on the contrary, declared himself a full-fledged ruler, “the embodiment of law on earth.” The brutal confrontation resumed with renewed vigor, but, despite mutual efforts, it led nowhere. Frederick II remained invincible, but in 1250 he too was struck down by illness. The news of his death served as a signal for unrest. Everything was destroyed almost at once, and complete anarchy ensued, lasting almost twenty years. The puppet emperors did not have enough strength to put an end to this.

Presenting these pages to the reader, I feel some excitement. The topic covered in the book is so complex that some may even find it boring. But how can one present it clearly, without going into excess and without distorting reality? To lay the alleys of a French garden in the forest, you will have to cut down so many beautiful trees!

Indeed, the history of the German Holy Roman Empire is woven from paradoxes. Was this empire truly Holy? It began to be considered as such from the moment its rulers accepted the papacy. Was this empire Roman, if the Eternal City was considered its capital in the strict sense of the word only for a short time, to the misfortune of those who made such an attempt? And finally, this empire could not be considered purely German. By its definition, it was supposed to be comprehensive, to stand above all the peoples subject to it. Of course, the empire's connection with Germany was very strong. The Germans perceived themselves as a single nation, because, having long ago left their lands in pursuit of the idea of ​​​​creating a great empire, they realized their commonality. However, the king they elected was not called the King of the German Nations, but the King of Rome, since he was destined to be Emperor, just as the son of the French Emperor Napoleon was one day destined to become the ruler of Rome. The German kingdom and the supranational empire are so closely connected that in the German language there is only one word - Reich - to designate both of these concepts, in Latin, on the contrary, they distinguish kingdom And empire.

If the logic of historical events seems contradictory to us, this is because we do not perceive history as something holistic, but rather look for connections in it with a certain basic, core idea, “one of the dominant themes in the formation of humanity.” The core idea inherited by the Roman intelligentsia from the Greek philosophers was the community of people in a universal sense, the community, unity and protection of which was ensured by the state created by the Romans. After Constantine adopted Christianity, the Roman Empire ( orbis romanus) turned into a Christian empire ( orbis christianus), whose patron was God, and whose governor on earth was the emperor, combining political and religious power. When barbarian hordes destroyed the Western Roman Empire, its idealized image became even more vivid. In a world where unbridled force and cruelty dictated their laws, the memory of law and order was maintained as a guarantee of a better future. Thus was born “the myth of the Roman Christian community, which found the territory it had long dreamed of and a single faith.” The clergy fully supported this idea, since their teaching was directed to the past, which seemed to them especially beautiful for the reason that weapons in those days, as they believed, served only a just cause. In a society now ruled by military force, they felt defenseless. It was not in their power to revive the empire. And only active, powerful, insightful and ambitious rulers could understand this myth and bring it to life. Or, more correctly, try to do it, since the task was not an easy one. Difficult political conditions did not allow one to act freely, building a state that only vaguely resembled an empire, which always needed strong, knowledgeable people with exceptional abilities. These qualities, unfortunately, were not inherent in everyone and manifested themselves differently in everyone. Some rulers, succumbing to impulse, went to extremes in their desire to realize this utopia. For others, more pragmatic, it was not the size of the empire that was more important, but its power. The actions of each of them bore the imprint of their personality. The history of the empire thus became the history of its emperors.

The most famous of them, Charlemagne, it would seem, should not appear in the gallery of portraits that we are about to present to you. The Holy Empire was founded in 962, about a century and a half after his death. However, both Otto and all his successors sought to follow in his footsteps. They all wished to ascend the throne in the court church at Aachen and be crowned in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, like Charlemagne, whose coronation took place on Christmas Day 800. Memories of him turned into a legend, giving the dream of a great empire another feature that has passed through the centuries - the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe chosen people, who are destined by Providence to find unity. After the Romans, this purpose passed to the Franks. Moreover, it became impossible to lay claim to the empire without being a descendant of the most noble Frankish families. The empire almost inevitably split into two. Two cities embodied her duality - primarily Rome, but to the same extent Aachen.

And although the memory of Charlemagne survived centuries, the empire he created turned out to be short-lived. In 843 it disintegrated. Never again will the lands of the Eastern Franks, present-day Germany, and the Western Franks, present-day France, unite. In a short time, what had previously been a single community of the West fell apart into countless principalities and kingdoms. At the beginning of the 10th century, the imperial crown was just an ornament displayed by small-scale princelings. The last time it was thrown off was in 924. Otto picked it up on February 2, 962. Lombardy and Lorraine, whose lands stretched to the Meuse, were also subordinated to him, the ruler of Eastern Frankia. The victory over the Hungarian conquerors significantly strengthened his influence, and he considered that he was worthy of reviving the empire. His possessions were very extensive, but the means to keep them in obedience remained rather average. Carolingian power east of the Rhine was limited, and in all other lands its mechanism was poorly established. The dukes who elevated Otto to the throne were by no means meek executors of his will. The ethnic diversity of the peoples that made up the empire made it difficult to govern, and even peoples who spoke the same Germanic language did not form a single nation. To replenish his treasury, Otto used his power as emperor. Like Charlemagne and all Christian emperors, he was considered God's vicegerent on earth. Both spiritual and secular power were concentrated in his hands, so he could count on the full support of the Church. The clergy constituted a certain framework of society, more like an organism devoid of nerves and bones. Many problems and dramatic situations hampered the development of this structure, which still had to survive severe trials, but the symbiosis of religion and politics turned out to be viable. Otto's successors did everything possible to preserve such a system. She contributed to the rapid development of the empire and allowed it to reach the peak of its development in the middle of the 10th century.

Later this magnificent structure began to crumble. The popes realized that they had a responsibility to the entire Christian world and that serious abuses were undermining it. To change the situation, complete freedom of action was required. It was not enough to put at the head of the empire a certain secular ruler who would constantly interfere in the affairs of the church. A situation in which the emperor would claim to be the new Messiah and appoint bishops according to his own discretion was absolutely unacceptable. What annoyed the pope most was that the emperor had unshakable power. Conflict was inevitable; the fight became merciless. The unhealthy situation in the state threatened him with death. After half a century of bitter struggle, agreement was reached. The Empire emerged from the crisis significantly weakened. Prelates ceased to be officials, turning into vassals. The state no longer had the right to demand absolute submission from them. Frederick Hohenstaufen, nicknamed Barbarossa, learned from these changes and introduced a clearly organized feudal system, which became one of the pillars on which the monarchy rested. The clergy occupied their niche in it, and the empire began to be called Sacred. But Barbarossa wanted to take advantage of the wealth that abounded in Italy. The marriage of his son Henry VI with the Norman heiress in Sicily was supposed to provide Hohenstaufen with power on the peninsula. This decision was made despite the desire of the Lombard cities for independence, with which the popes, who did not want to fall into the steel pincers, entered into a strong alliance. The premature death of Henry VI and the troubled times that followed allowed the Holy See to achieve unprecedented opportunities, leaving the emperor only the rights of Peter's heir. Taking as a basis the Sicilian state, which he inherited from his mother, Barbarossa’s grandson Frederick II, on the contrary, declared himself a full-fledged ruler, “the embodiment of law on earth.” The brutal confrontation resumed with renewed vigor, but, despite mutual efforts, it led nowhere. Frederick II remained invincible, but in 1250 he too was struck down by illness. The news of his death served as a signal for unrest. Everything was destroyed almost at once, and complete anarchy ensued, lasting almost twenty years. The puppet emperors did not have enough strength to put an end to this.