2. Inappropriate use of foreign words due to ignorance of their meaning.

№	quote from media	source		correct option
1	It was quite a difficult dilemma to accommodate all the participants of the rally.	"Terek" from 27.05.05 , page 3, "On the eve of summer."	It’s a big dilemma for me where to go...	problem
2	My appearance in this dress caused a huge default...	STS, “Take it down immediately,” 07.10.05.	The default rate will reach...	2. inflation
3	The resume about this person is quite favorable.	TV NOTR, "Kaleidoscope", 30.09.05.	Everyone knows the resume of this company...	reputation
4	All supermarket distributors wear uniforms.	"Newspaper of the South" from 27.03.03. , page 2.	Distributors of the SAMSUNG salon are impolite.	sellers
5	This company regularly insinuated documents...	TV KBR, "Local Time", 21.03.02.	There is a version that the murder of Peter III was insinuated...	forged; staged

Let us give an interpretation of a number of common borrowings (from L. P. Krysin’s Explanatory Dictionary of Foreign Words (M., 1998).

Autarky is the economic isolation of a country aimed at creating a closed national economy capable of dispensing with the import of goods from abroad.

A broker is an intermediary in concluding transactions on the stock exchange.

Deposit - funds or securities placed with credit institutions.

The debtor is the debtor.

Dealer - a person or institution - a sales representative of an enterprise, company; stock exchange intermediary involved in the purchase and sale of securities.

A dilemma is a situation in which choosing one of two opposing solutions is equally difficult.

Distributor is a person or institution engaged in placing on the market the goods produced by an enterprise.

Insinuation is a slanderous fabrication.

The establishment is the ruling and privileged groups of society, as well as the entire system of power and control through which they exercise their dominance.

Monitoring is the systematic observation of a process in order to record the compliance of the results of this process with the initial assumptions.

Nouveau riche is a rich man - an upstart, a man who got rich through speculation.

Reputation is an established (usually favorable) opinion about something.

Server is a serving device in automatic information processing systems.

A fiasco is a failure, a complete failure.

In our opinion, a number of lexical errors are associated with ignorance of the meanings of words and set expressions and, due to this ignorance, their incorrect use in speech.

3. We found out that a very common mistake was the use of the word “back” instead of “again”, “again”: “Gabardine came back to us”, “Riga station should be renamed back...”, “Subsequently Balanchine gave her (the ballerina ) this batch back."

4. Often in the media, a sentence begins with the words “in this regard” (“In this regard, I would like to recall recent events”). Most often, this phrase is used when the text does not indicate any connection between the previous and the subsequent. Correct: “In connection with this...”. Thanks to this combination of words, a connection is established between what has already been said and what will be discussed in the future.

5. Lexico-stylistic errors also include ignorance of the peculiarities of lexical combinability of words in the Russian language. For example: “The standard of living of the people is deteriorating” (correct: “The standard of living of the people is decreasing”). The sentence is also incorrectly composed: “In order to improve the crime situation in the city, law enforcement agencies are working in an enhanced mode” (criminogenic - facilitating the commission of a crime). Correct: “To change the crime situation in the city...” or “To improve the general situation in the city...”.

6. In addition, in the process of research, we discovered cases of incorrect use of the words “main” and “capital”:

7. We came to the conclusion that the following types of errors are typical for spontaneous speech:

№	quote from media	source	the result of the impact on students' speech
1	Only the intervention of rescuers prevented the final looting...	"Trud" from 18.12.03. , page 4, "Emergency. "Bush's legs" scattered like chickens."	A successful hero is successful in everything...
2	An hour of vacuuming burns 250 calories per hour...	"Cosmo" No. 3, 2005 , page 321.	We have summed up the results of the month for the past month.
3	The outgoing year 2003...was rich in both successes and failures. I would really like to think that 2004 will be more successful.	"Terek" from 31.12.03. , page 1 "What 2003 was like"	May fortune, happiness and luck accompany you...
4	And he doesn’t force the stars to jump rope...		There will be a competition in linguistics and different languages.

№	quote from media	source	the result of the impact on students' speech
55	As new information becomes available, we will inform you...	TV KBR 14/10/05 , 20.45 "News", announcer Natalya Borovinskaya	Wild animals were found everywhere in the forest. (from an essay)
6	Time has always been measured...	From TV advertising	We saw their dead corpses...
7	He's just such a simple person...	"Song of the Year", NTV, 31.12.05. (A. B. Pugacheva)	This is an axiom, this is a thing that does not require proof.
8	They are catching elusive militants...	“Today”, NTV, 04.01.06. (Olga Belova)	The field was full of blooming flowers...
9	His imagination has already run wild, and we begin to play...	TV advertising	In the summer I read Chekhov, Tolstoy and Russian classics.
10	Classic length sleeves, long...	"Take it off immediately". STS, 26.12.05. (Sasha Vertinskaya)	He got into a galosh and disgraced himself...
11	She was distinguished by the swan-like beauty of a white swan...	"Terek" from 12.04.03. , page 3, "Dance and Life."	Youthful maximalism is inherent in all young people.

This series can be continued for a long time. Phenomena of this order in linguistics are usually called tautology.

8. Logical errors:

№	quote from media	source
1	And if they do, it means that something is wrong with them...	"KP" from 14.09.05 , page 2 "Picture of the day" (quoted by Mr. Chernomyrdin)
2	The current season has already opened a number of young performers for connoisseurs of classical music. The current one was no exception.	"KBP" from 04.06.05 , pp. 4-5 "In one breath"
3	Male and female brains are two big differences...	"KP" for 16-23. 06.05, p. 10 "Club for the curious"
4	After half an hour of computer games, I get the impression that I have gone crazy. So I turn it off.	"Cosmo" No. 7, 2005 , page 117 "Commentary by Ivan Urgant"
5	When purchasing pyrotechnics, do not buy them from hawkers...	"Terek" from 31.12.03. , page 3 "Attention: 01 warning"
6	Dmitry Pevtsov was shaved naked...	"KP" from 2-9. 06.05 , page 39 (heading)
7	But we also need to keep our finger on the pulse and not let young people take their course.	"KP" from 08.11.05 , page 3 "How can we avoid punctures"

88	We did not think about this problem in this format. We will pay serious attention to this problem. (from the speech of A. Kanokov)	"KBP" dated 10/25/05 , page 1 "In the near future, lessons on Islam and Orthodoxy will be introduced in schools"
9	I communicate with people who don’t particularly bother with their faces.
10	And when I turned on the TV, I heard completely different speech.	"MK" dated 11/24/05 , "Crooked Air"
11	This love of his...It’s incredible, creepy...It’s...what! Here.	“Without complexes”, ORT, 27.12.05. (Lolita)
12	Days passed, weeks passed and the result was obvious...	TV advertising
13	Chernomyrdin: It is necessary not to achieve this through desire, but from a completely different place. -I always think about this and am far from indifferent. I don’t really notice who else can run for president. -And it’s a pity that at such a full gallop a person will have to leave according to the Constitution. I think that he will have no equal. So far he doesn’t have them. Although, I must say, no one knew him until 1999 either. Although Russia is a rich country – both in people and in smart people. Of course, there will be, they exist, who are worthy to lead our state. I wouldn't even want to touch this. I wouldn't want to now.	"KP" dated 10/18/05 , page 8 "Politsteam room"
14	In general, extreme sports had a blast...	"Vesti KBR", 27.06.05. , 20.45
15	The President...conducted a debriefing...	"Today", 22.08.05 , 22.00, Aset Vatsueva
16	There was a lot of nice music.	"Five Stars", "Russia", 10.07.05. (L. V. Leshchenko)
17	Kournikova had not been seen for a long time.	"Vesti", NTV 13.07.05
18	Now prayers are being held at the Western Wall...	"Segodnya", NTV, 05.01.06. (Denis Sandro)
19	Not in the best spirits...	"Segodnya", NTV, 05.01.06. (Alexey Pivovarov)
20	Forty square meters... Tomorrow the combing of the area will continue...	"Segodnya", NTV, 05.01.06. (Abdul Musaev)
21	You have violated the criminal law...	"Federal Judge" ORT, 12. 01.06 , (S. A. Pashin)
22	A member of an illegal gang was detained...	"Duty department." "Russia", 12.01.06.
23	As the furnace flows, they begin to break through	"Terek" from 11.12.03. , page 4 "To avoid the fire element"
24	We went to concerts and on an excursion to the museum...	"Terek" from 28.08.03. , page 3 "The stars are fading over Almaz"

№	quote from media	source
1	Although... it is difficult to compare such defaults, it is still noticeable: they have a common basis... Although the right gives hope for correction...	"Trud" from 18.12.03. , page 2 “The language has been driven to default”
2	And this despite the fact that these funds were not provided for in the budget.	"KP" from 01.11.03. , page 6 "Vaccination has begun in the Stavropol region"
3	Everything seems to suit me...	"Three Windows", ORT, 04.12.05. (N. Koroleva)
4	Now, in fact, we want to say that, in fact, this style suits her... And, in fact, we decided on a minimum of changes...	“Take it down immediately”, STS, 08.01.06. (Tasha Strict)
5	Well, really, she hasn't changed much. She really is the same person... No, really! .	“Take it down immediately”, STS, 08.01.06. (Sasha Vertinskaya)

4. Violation of speech purity

1. Undoubtedly, colloquial elements, colloquial inclusions (precisely inclusions) have the right to life in journalism. However, journalists often lack a sense of proportion in using conversational style means:

№	quote from media	source	the result of the impact on students' speech
1	The museum’s visitors are entirely military servicemen, and the museum staff did their best for them...	"Life" from 27.02.04. , page 5 "Opening of the museum"	The piano players were practicing in the next class...
2	The Prime Minister approved amendments to the traffic rules allowing cops to seize any car.	"KP" from 02.10.03 , page 3 from the title	There were no cops at that time...
3	I do not care…	"Cosmo" No. 12, 2005 , page 180 "Interview. Stas Piekha"	An awesome incident happened in Athens... Pechorin didn’t give a damn.
4	Strange guys: they sell drugs, drink, roam the streets.	"KP" dated 11/11/05 , page 2 "Picture of the day"	Instead of work, Raskolnikov wandered around St. Petersburg...
5	“Let your every working day brighten up the carnival of your loved ones at home!” - our star wished.	"CP dated 12.11.05, page 14 "Grumb of the week"	You can take a photo...
6	...eat worms on air...	"KP" from 22.10.05. , page 14 "Bad joke"	We hung out at Scherer's.

7	This guy just left the zone yesterday, he was next to Hodor, he’ll tell you everything!	"KP" dated 10/29/05 , page 2 "We provide details"	Solzhenitsyn, leaning back from the zone, begins to write novels...
8	So I screwed up Sergei Bezrukov...	"MK" dated 11/24/05 , "Crooked Air"	Everyone was making fun of Pierre Bezukhov...
9	Well, the president didn’t like their faces...	"News", ORT, 13.09.05. , 21.00, V. Chernomyrdin	The hero’s face was so-so...
10	In Europe, the ability of city residents to park their cars is amazing...	“Unlucky Notes”, Dmitry Krylov, 20.11.05.	She took pictures of everything edible in the house.
11		"My Fair Nanny", STS (Nanny Vika)	Margarita found herself at a crazy party.
12	While the pasta is cooking, let's watch the Beatles cassette.	"Three Windows", ORT, 05.11.05. , 10.30, A. Makarevich.	By the end of the novel, Natasha Rostova acquires a new look...

It should be noted that the conversational tonality in information and analytical programs often gravitates toward a rough, colloquial tone, or is even completely replaced by it. Evidence of this is the frankly rude vocabulary: havat, freebie, goats, screw up.

2. As for foreign words, the need for some of them is undeniable, but why do we need “confrontation”, “round”, “summit”, “consensus”, “teenager”, “show”, “brain ring” and hundreds of others! The current scale of borrowing is destructive for the Russian literary language:

№	quote from media	source	the result of the impact on students' speech
1	I do my own PR at their expense.	"MK" dated 11/24/05 , "Crooked Air"	The poet promoted himself...
2	After a complete upgrade, Santa Claus appeared...	"Today". NTV, 26.12.05	It was an upgrade...
3	Rural amateur groups organized a grandiose show for combine operators.	"Terek" from 18.06.04. , page 2 “There is time for business, an hour for fun.”	In the evening I put on a hysterical show for my parents.
4	Pluralism of opinions will be taken into account.	"KBP" from 08.12.03. , page 1 "Elections today"	There is a pluralism of parties in the Duma.
5	This collective farm is always at the forefront.	"Terek" from 07.09.03. , page 2 "Advanced farms of the region."	Our class was at the forefront of cleaning the school.

Conclusion

If a person does not make mistakes in pronunciation, in the use of word forms, in their formation, in the construction of sentences, we call his speech correct. However, this is not enough. Speech may be correct, but “bad,” that is, it may not correspond to the goals and conditions of communication. The concept of “good” speech includes at least three characteristics: richness, accuracy and expressiveness. Indicators of rich speech are a large volume of active vocabulary, a variety of morphological forms and syntactic structures used. Precision of speech is the choice of such linguistic means that best express the content of the statement, reveal its theme and main idea. Expressiveness is created through the selection of linguistic means that best suit the conditions and tasks of communication.

If a person has correct and good speech, he reaches the highest level of speech culture. This means that he not only does not make mistakes, but also knows how to best construct statements in accordance with the purpose of communication, select the most appropriate words and constructions in each case, taking into account who and under what circumstances he is addressing.

A high level of speech culture is an integral feature of a modern person; mistakes should be avoided in pronunciation, in the use of word forms, in the construction of sentences, but this is quite difficult to achieve in the current situation, when the media, which have a significant influence on the speech culture of society, are so far from the norm .

We conducted a mini-survey of test takers:

Do you read software works without fail?

a) of course, and in full - 10%; b) I try, but in shorthand - 63%; c) no-27% (!).

How often do you read works of world classics?

a) quite often - 26%; b) rarely - 15%; c) I read light literature - 19%; d) I don’t read, I don’t have time - 40% (!).

How often do you use linguistic dictionaries?

a) quite often - 20%; b) from time to time - 6%; c) I don’t use it - 74% (!).

How often do you turn to the media for various types of information?

a) very often - 72%; b) from time to time - 18%; c) rarely - 10%.

Are you familiar with the concept of “speech culture”?

a) yes-35%; b) remember something - 29%; c) no-36%.

In your opinion, can the speech of the media be incorrect and inconsistent with the norms?

a) quite - 12%; b) I don’t think - 26%; c) no-62%.

Do you consider it possible to adjust your speech according to the speech of the media?

a) of course - 61%; b) no-14%; c) not always - 25%.

After analyzing the research materials and taking into account the results of the mini-survey, we came to the conclusion that:

1) the proportion of speech products of the media in the speech practice of society has increased, the importance of media texts in the public consciousness has also increased, and the power of the media’s influence on the culture of people’s speech has increased.

2) we have stated that the influence of the media language on the speech culture of society is negative, which is a matter of concern for the ecology of the Russian language and the speech culture of modern society.

L.V. Shcherba wrote: “Everyone wants to speak the correct good Russian language, but they don’t know where to find its norms. The answer, in fact, is, of course, extremely simple - read the works ... of the indisputable classics of our literature - Gorky, Chekhov, Korolenko, Turgenev, Goncharov etc., and you will find the standard you are looking for." In our opinion, the answer of L.V. Shcherba is very relevant, but it will be quite difficult to correct the situation with this advice (see the results of the mini-survey), so we propose our “Program for optimizing the culture of Russian speech”:

I. Introduce the subject of rhetoric at school.

II. Organize rhetoric courses for language teachers.

IV. Organize clubs for lovers of Russian speech in schools.

VI. Establish a prize for media that advocate for the purity and correctness of Russian speech.

VII. Organize on one of the Russian channels the broadcast of the program “Censorship” with monitoring of errors in the speech of TV presenters, distributing the latter in the following categories: 1) Miss/Mr. Uncorrectness of Speech; 2) Miss/Mr. antiquity of speech; 3) Miss/Mr. anti-purity of speech, etc.

VIII. To popularize dictionaries by actively creating their high-quality Internet versions. This step, in our opinion, ensures the availability of dictionary information.

IX. Announce a competition among linguists to develop a program for educational programs in speech culture.

X. Establish an All-Russian competition for experts in world classical literature and speech culture.

We believe that by following our program, it is possible to influence the state of the speech culture of modern society, as well as the culture of society as a whole: “By the attitude of each person to his language, one can judge not only his cultural level, but also his civic value. True love for one's country is unthinkable without love for one's language. A person indifferent to his language is a savage. He is harmful in his very essence, because his indifference to language is explained by complete indifference to the past, present and future of his people" (K. G. Paustovsky).

References

1. Abramov N. The art of talking // Russian speech. - 1991. - No. 4.

2. Avanesov R.I.. Russian literary pronunciation. M., 1972

3. Ageenko F. L., Zarva M. V. Dictionary of accents of the Russian language. M., 2000

4. Vvedenskaya L. A. Culture of speech. Series "Textbooks, teaching aids". Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 2001.

5. Vvedenskaya L. A. Dictionary of accents for radio announcers and
television. M., 2004

6. Gvozdev A. N.. Modern Russian literary language: phonetics and morphology. M., 1973

7. Grekov V.F. et al. A manual for classes in the Russian language. M., Education, 1968.

8. Krysin L.P. Explanatory dictionary of foreign words. M., 1998

9. L. A. Verbitskaya. Let's speak correctly. M., 1993

10. Media materials.

11. Materials of essays and tape recordings of spontaneous speech of 11th grade students of the Municipal Educational Institution "Secondary School No. 2 of Terek".

12. Novinskaya N. I. Orthoepic dictionary of the Russian language. M., 2004

13. Oganesyan S.S. Culture of speech communication // Russian language at school. No. 5 – 1998

14. Ozhegov S.I. Dictionary of the Russian language. M., 1991

15. Rosenthal D. E. Handbook of spelling and literary editing for press workers. M., 1971

16. Skvortsov L. I. Language, communication and culture // Russian language at school. No. 1 – 1994

17. Formanovskaya N.I. Culture of communication and speech etiquette // Russian language at school. No. 5

Application

Percentage of errors in media speech culture.

1. Spelling errors – 40%

2. Spelling errors – 15%

3. Punctuation errors – 6%

4. Grammatical errors – 9%

5. Errors in word usage – 30%

1. Spelling errors –43%

2. Spelling errors –10%

3. Punctuation errors –5%

4. Grammatical errors –10%

5. Errors in word usage –32%

The media, in the course of reforming life in the Russian Federation, gave rise to a decrease in the quality level of their products, especially in the field of language. New personnel brought their own language, their level of understanding of speech culture, their vocabulary, sometimes mechanically borrowed from foreign languages, and primarily Anglo-American, to the electronic and print media. Insufficiently trained new personnel who came to the media in...

Modern language norms and communication ethics make it possible to ensure the greatest effect in achieving the set communication goals. The science that deals with the problems of speech normalization and develops recommendations for the skillful use of language is also called speech culture. It contains three components: normative, communicative, ethical. Qualitative assessment of statements with...

About the means of speech influence. The twentieth century left only fiction in place of classical rhetoric and literature and proposed a new subject - the culture of speech as a doctrine of the norms of literary language, and in school - the aspect of speech development. An analysis of new theories and disciplines that emerged at the end of the twentieth century through the development of speech technologies shows that they historically go back to rhetoric, often...

The task of scientists is to establish which manifestations of linguistic taste correspond/do not correspond to the main processes, trends in the evolution of a particular modern literary language, the current system of literary norms and the dynamics of its development. The doctrine of speech culture evaluates speech facts, establishing the degree of their normativity, appropriateness of use in a given speech situation, their motivation...

“Risks and insurance 1. Risks Risk, as M. Bulgakov wonderfully formulated it, arises as a result of ignorance of the future. Our whole life..."

Yes, man is mortal, but that would not be so bad.

The bad thing is that he is sometimes suddenly mortal, that's the trick!

M. Bulgakov. Master and Margarita

Risks and insurance

Risk, as M. Bulgakov wonderfully formulated it, arises as a result

ignorance of the future. Our whole life is saturated with risks:

1. The death of a breadwinner can leave his family without a source of income.

2. Financial consequences of permanent disability

(disabilities) can be even more serious - in addition to the loss of a source of income for the family, the disabled person himself needs to live on something and, probably, undergo treatment.

3. The death of an employee of an enterprise may require the employer to pay the benefits specified in the employment contract. If an accident happens to one of the key employees, financial problems may even be associated not so much with the payment of benefits to the family of the deceased, but with the losses that the company will incur due to the time required to find a full-fledged replacement.

4. A fire can lead to the loss of an apartment, cottage or industrial premises.

5. Investment results may differ significantly from those expected:

Instead of the expected increase in stock prices, there may be a sharp collapse on the stock exchange;

Rising inflation has devalued funds on bank deposits.

Strictly speaking, the depreciation of investments in bank deposits or bonds is a typical situation in modern Russia; It would be more accurate to say that it devalued even more than expected.

6. The company's costs may turn out to be much higher than expected, as a result of which it will incur serious losses.

7. My son entered the paid department of a prestigious, expensive university. His parents assumed that after two years of classes with expensive tutors, he would be able to study for free.

8. All businesses bear the (marketing) risk of reduced demand for their products. The reasons can be very diverse: competition, changes in customer preferences, changes in prices for raw materials, etc.

Risks can be divided into two large groups: speculative and pure.

Speculative risks imply the possibility of both losses and profits.

A neutral result (no losses, no profits) is also possible. The last four risks are examples of speculative risks. Investing in stocks can provide returns that an investor could never have dreamed of; the son can enroll in the free department, and even find a well-paid part-time job while studying. The first four risks are examples of pure risks - in the best case, the specified events will not occur, making a profit from pure risks is impossible.

Insurance deals with pure risks. Insurance provides protection to clients against financial losses that may occur in the future due to unforeseen events, but is not intended to generate profit. Insurance protects against the financial consequences of the death of a breadwinner, loss of property in a fire, damage to third parties, etc. To ensure that insurance does not turn into a kind of bet, when concluding an insurance contract, the presence of an insurable interest is required, implying that the event as a result of which the insurance company will have to make an insurance payment will actually cause a loss to the potential client. If it were possible to conclude insurance contracts in respect of any event, such as the death of a stranger, damage to someone else's property, etc., then insurance would turn into an illegal betting.

In property and liability insurance, this principle is always followed:

insurance coverage is paid only when losses occur. At the same time, a person familiar with life insurance may have some questions. Endowment life insurance involves the payment of insurance coverage for the survival of the insured person until the end of the insurance period. Moreover, with mutual insurance, the client has investment opportunities that are very similar to playing on the stock exchange. What does it mean?

The answer is that, in fact, endowment life insurance provides the client with two services:

1) compensation for losses arising from the death of the insured person;

2) investment instrument.

The first service can be considered as insurance in the “narrow” sense of the word; the statement that insurance deals only with pure risks is fully applicable to it.

2. From the customer's point of view Both individuals and businesses are planning for their future. To do this, they use financial planning and risk management, even if they do not know this terminology.

Let us consider, for example, the financial planning of a young family consisting of two people, newlyweds Ivan and Maria, 22 years old, who have graduated from university and are embarking on independent adult life. The source of income for this young family is their future salary. They have no savings, just as they do not have an apartment, a dacha or a car. They have ordinary, one might say typical, family plans: to have children, raise them, give them an education, buy an apartment, a dacha, a car, and provide for themselves in their old age. Following these plans involves balancing future expenses with future income.

A young family predicts future income and future expenses. Future income is projected taking into account the expected increase in wages and decrease in income during the period of birth and childcare.

Using the funds remaining after paying current expenses, they plan to create funds (savings) for the following purposes:

Making a down payment to purchase an apartment;

Purchasing a car;

Teaching children at school and university;

Provisions in old age.

The listed expenses are planned.

Loss of property due to fire, accident and other incidents;

Treatment costs due to illness or accident;

Loss of income in the event of death or disability of one of the spouses;

Compensation for losses caused to others as a result of a car accident or flooding of neighbors and other events. This type of damage is called liability to third parties.

The solution to this problem is called risk management or (direct translation from English) risk management. The first stage of risk management is the identification of existing risks.

1. Risk avoidance. The family may not buy a car and use public transport. This will avoid many associated risks, such as loss of the car due to theft or accident, death or injury in a car accident, or damage to third parties.

2. Risk reduction. The family can take measures to reduce the likelihood of adverse events or their consequences: lead a healthy lifestyle, give up skiing, install iron doors in the apartment, set it to an alarm system, install smoke detectors and fire extinguishing equipment, etc.

3. Transfer of risk. Transferring risk means transferring financial responsibility for certain events to another party - an individual or organization. As a rule, this cannot be done for free; you have to pay for everything. The most commonly used method of risk transfer is insurance1. As a result of concluding an insurance contract, the insurer, in exchange for a certain amount of money (insurance premium), undertakes the obligation to pay insurance coverage if the events specified in the contract occur, for example, the death of the insured person. It is customary to distinguish three types of insurance:

Property insurance is insurance in case of loss associated with damage to the insured's property resulting from a fire, but, of course, not the only one. In particular, a technique called hedging, associated with the use of derivatives, is used to protect against financial risks.

theft, accident, flood, hail, etc.

Liability insurance – insurance in case of loss associated with the death of third parties, damage to their property or health.

Personal insurance – insurance in case of losses associated with death, accident or illness of the Insured person.

This type of insurance is the subject of this book.

4. Taking risks. For a number of risks, the family may not take any action. Acceptance of risk means that the family assumes full financial responsibility for its implementation, or, using the terminology accepted in insurance and risk management, leaves the risk to its own retention. Risk acceptance occurs both in relation to relatively small losses, which the family can easily attribute to current expenses, and in relation to serious risks. The reasons for taking serious risks range from a “chance” calculation to the hope that the salary of one spouse will be enough to feed the family in the event of the death or disability of the other.

Partial risk acceptance is also possible, for example, the family is able to cope with the loss of income associated with the death of one of the spouses, but not both. In this case, she can buy life insurance, which provides for the payment of insurance benefits only in the event of the death of both spouses, which will cost much less. When insuring property and/or liability, a loss insurance contract may provide for the payment of insurance coverage equal to the excess of the loss over a certain amount established by the contract, called a deductible. For example, with fire insurance, a deductible of 20 thousand rubles means that with a loss of 10 thousand rubles.

There is no insurance payment, and for a loss of 100 thousand rubles, the insurance payment will be 80 thousand rubles. This means that the policyholder assumes the risk of loss in the amount of up to 20 thousand rubles and insures a possible excess over this amount.

It is difficult to imagine a family that could transfer all the risks;

Some of the risks always remain with our own retention. Therefore, the funds (savings) listed above should be replenished with one more - in case of unforeseen expenses. Of course, in real life, a family is unlikely to have a large number of funds intended for different purposes. If the enterprises where Ivan and Maria work have corporate pension programs, they may well turn out to be the only “specialized” funds of the family.

In general, all four methods are used. It should be noted that these risk management methods are inherently heterogeneous: the first two are aimed at combating risk and/or its consequences, while the third and fourth are methods of financing risk. Risk transfer avoids the uncertainty of future costs associated with the associated risks, for example, death insurance allows, in exchange for the payment of regular fixed premiums, to compensate for losses associated with the loss of a breadwinner. Acceptance of risk means willingness to independently pay for losses that arise; in extreme cases, it means being prepared to completely lose your livelihood.

If the risk can be avoided, then there will be no need to finance it.

Taking steps to reduce risk reduces expected losses, but still requires choosing how to finance the risk. Depending on the risk financing method adopted, the actions taken will reduce the insurance premium, reduce the likelihood of losses or reduce the amount of losses.

The need for risk transfer depends on the specific situation. In general, the need for insurance is higher, the more dependents there are in the family (children, non-working spouses, parents in need of financial assistance), and the less savings or other property that can be sold if necessary. If by the age of 30 Ivan and Maria earn good money, buy an apartment, a dacha and a car, receive another apartment as an inheritance, and children are still only in plans for the future, then the need for insurance will be clearly lower than if there are three children and Maria, who does only housework.

Financial planning and risk management for a business enterprise is more complex than family financial planning, however, its essence remains the same.

The enterprise plans its development, creates funds for future development in the form of retained earnings and transfers part of the risks through insurance and other methods of risk transfer, for example, hedging financial risks.

A company's need for insurance depends on its financial situation and size. The larger the enterprise and the higher its own funds, the greater its ability to retain risks on its own.

In conclusion, we note that when financial planning it is necessary to take into account the current taxation and use effective, from a tax point of view, methods of planning and risk transfer.

3. From the insurance company's point of view, the insurance business is about taking on the risks of its clients for a set fee. An insurance company can accept risks that its customers cannot retain because it uses the principle of risk pooling. For example, consider death insurance for a period of one year. With a large number of insured persons, the insurance company knows that only a relatively small proportion of them will die during the term of the policy. This result follows both from common sense and from probability theory, which states that the greater the number of insured people, the more accurately one can predict the size of the total payments to the insurance company. This allows the insurance company to charge each client a small premium and pay out, in the event of death, an amount that can be hundreds of times the premium.

Is it possible, however, that despite common sense and the theory of probability, the number of deaths will be very high and the company will suffer losses or even go bankrupt? Yes, if the company does not take the necessary measures, this can indeed happen.

Try to give examples2.

Who is the easiest to insure in case of death? Those who know that they will die soon, or at least believe that the likelihood of their death is very high. These could be seriously ill people, people who have decided to commit suicide or climb Everest, etc. If no measures are taken, death insurance will primarily be provided in clinics for seriously ill patients. In this case, without contradicting the theory of probability, the number of deaths may turn out to be very large.

Insurance companies are commercial organizations, not charities, so they do not accept all risks, but only risks that meet certain requirements.

1) The loss must arise as a result of a random event. Illness or death must not be the result of intentional actions of the insured person;

in particular, a life insurance contract usually provides for the denial of insurance coverage in the event of suicide or attempted suicide3.

In the case of mixed life insurance, insurance coverage is paid for all contracts. Therefore, at first glance, there is a violation of this principle. This, however, is not the case, since the specific date of occurrence of the loss is a random event - death can occur at any time during the insurance period, or the person may survive to the end of the insurance period.

2) The fact of the occurrence of an event (insured event) specified in the contract, providing for the payment of insurance coverage, must be objectively verifiable. The fact of the death of the insured person is usually not in doubt, however, cases of fraud are possible here too: for example, a false death certificate may be provided abroad.

Disability or initial diagnosis of a critical illness are not so obvious. Disability is not always easy to verify, and the initial diagnosis of, say, cancer may not be primary at all; in fact, the disease may have been identified before the insurance contract was concluded. To prevent fraud, insurance companies carefully prescribe insured events, exclusions and measures to verify the occurrence of an insured event. One of these measures is the requirement. When teaching probability theory, the following example is often given. It is extremely unlikely that a hundred men and not a single woman would walk down the street. The teacher invited the students to look out the window and make sure his words were right... A company of soldiers was walking down the street!

The legislation of some countries limits the period during which insurance benefits may not be paid in the event of the death of the Insured.

timely notification of the insurance company about the insured event; If there is a long delay in notification, it is more difficult to verify the circumstances of the insured event.

A life insurance contract usually provides for the payment of insurance coverage established by the contract. For example, a life insurance contract may provide for the payment of one million rubles. in the event of the death of the insured person, 750 thousand rubles in the event of a disability of the first group and 500 thousand.

rubles in case of disability of the second group. However, the contract may provide for compensation for actual losses incurred; These include, for example, medical expenses insurance contracts. In this case, the size of the loss must also be objectively verifiable.

3) The volume of losses (insurance payments) must be predictable. For example, in the case of annual death insurance, the company, based on statistics, assumes that out of 1000 insured men, 7 will die. This gives it the opportunity to determine the cost of insurance and set the amount of the insurance premium. If the company could not predict the number of insured events, it would not be able to charge a premium commensurate with the risk.

Of course, the company cannot predict whether an insured event will occur with a specific insured person4, but it can quite accurately predict the number of insured events for a specific group of insured persons. If the contract provides for compensation for actually incurred losses, then the company predicts not only the number of insured events, but also the average amount of insurance payment.

What is needed to ensure predictability of the volume of losses? First, it is necessary to identify the main risk factors and assess their impact on the likelihood of an insured event and, if necessary, the amount of insurance payment.

Let's consider this issue using the example of the same one-year insurance in case of death.

Even a non-specialist knows that mortality depends on:

Age and gender of the person;

Health conditions;

Smoking. It's not that a drop of nicotine kills a horse; insurance companies are not interested in horses. It’s just that, all other things being equal, the mortality rate of smokers is much higher than that of non-smokers;

Professions – some professions are associated with an increased risk of accident or occupational disease; others are associated with higher income levels and, accordingly, better nutrition, living conditions, and access to medical care.

Engaging in dangerous sports, etc.

A significant threat to the insurance company is the so-called moral hazard, i.e. in essence, the risk of deception on the part of the client, which can hide factors that significantly influence mortality.

An actuarial anecdote. How is a Sicilian actuary different from an English one? The English actuary knows how many people will die; Sicilian – knows who will die.

Every life insurance company has guidelines for assessing the level of risk associated with a particular person interested in life insurance. In an application for insurance, the applicant provides information about himself necessary to assess the level of risk associated with him. If necessary, to obtain more accurate information about the health status of a potential client, a medical examination is also carried out. As a result, all potential clients are divided into fairly homogeneous groups in terms of the risk of death. In insurance, this is called risk classification, and the process of risk classification is called underwriting.

Like any business, an insurance company is subject to normal business risks, such as:

Investment risk;

Marketing risk;

Too high transaction costs;

Fire, flood, death or illness of employees, etc.

Like any other enterprise, an insurance company manages its risks and insures (with other insurance companies) its property, liability and the life and health of its employees. However, there is another type of insurance specific to the insurance company, which is called reinsurance.

The need for reinsurance arises in cases where the insurance company accepts too large risks for insurance, for example:

There is, although a small probability, that a large number of insured persons will die as a result of one event, for example, the crash of an airplane carrying employees of one enterprise, an earthquake, flood, etc.

A very high sum insured for a specific policy: for the majority of insured persons, the insurance payment in case of death does not exceed two million rubles, and for one client the insurance payment is equal to 100 million rubles.

The death of a large number of insured persons as a result of a single event, or the death of a person whose death benefit is many times the average, can adversely affect the insurer's financial position or even lead to bankruptcy. Therefore, he transfers part of his risks to another insurance company, i.e. in exchange for the insurance premium, another insurance company accepts payment of part of the insurance coverage. Since the insurer transfers part of the risks accepted for insurance, such insurance is called “reinsurance”.

Reinsurance is especially important for small companies with limited funds of their own; Let us note that at present Russian life insurance companies cannot be called large.

Note. A large company that promises, in accordance with an employment contract, to pay insurance benefits in the event of the death of employees, bears risks similar to those borne by an insurance company, with the same number of insured persons at the risk of death. Just like an insurance company, it can predict expected benefit payments and only insure against the possibility of large losses. One way to implement this approach is to create captive insurance companies that retain risks within the holding company.

Conclusion

This book is devoted to the consideration of life and health insurance products and everything connected with them. Insurers are developing new insurance products and modernizing existing ones in order to most fully meet the needs of clients for insurance protection. Insurance is inextricably linked with the concept of risk; To understand insurance, in particular life and health insurance, you need to understand the risks associated with it, i.e.

risks of both parties to the insurance contract, namely the policyholder (client of the insurance company) and the insurer (insurance company).

Understanding a customer's risk is essential to developing insurance products that customers want and providing individuals (individuals or businesses) with the right advice on which insurance options best suit their needs.

Many insurance company employees believe that they do not need to know the risks borne by the insurance company itself; These risks are dealt with by management, financiers, and actuaries. This opinion is especially widespread among those who sell insurance. However, this is not true. Understanding the risks of an insurance company is necessary in order to understand the existing restrictions on the development or sale of certain insurance products. In particular, it will be much easier for marketers to participate in the development of new products and modernization of existing ones if they understand that in order to receive a high commission they need to give up something.

President of the Russian Federation, General Director of the Center for Corporate Strategists... " ECONOMIC COOPERATION AND INTEGRATION First session Geneva, September 27-28, 2006...”

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As a practicing lawyer for 45 years, I can say that sometimes legal and reasonable decisions are still made by judges. For example, more than ten times, on far-fetched grounds, investigators tried to prevent me from participating in a criminal case, and only twice did judges recognize such actions, inactions and decisions of the investigator as illegal and unfounded.

This means that they can exercise justice as a type of state activity in compliance with a special order enshrined in the Constitution of Russia and procedural legislation. But they do it like a stopped clock - they show the exact time twice a day.

What was the reason that justice, as a type of state activity, works this way?

An analysis of the implementation of the principles of criminal proceedings will help answer this question.

The principles of criminal proceedings are legislative requirements addressed to participants in criminal proceedings.

If an investigator, investigator, or prosecutor violates the principles of criminal proceedings in their activities, then this activity cannot be considered criminal procedure, and if the judge ignores them, then justice is not carried out.

The Constitution of Russia, in Article 46, establishes: everyone is guaranteed judicial protection of their rights and freedoms.

This constitutional requirement is developed in Article 6 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation, which prescribes that criminal proceedings have as their purpose:

Protection of the rights and legitimate interests of victims of crimes, as well as

Protection of the individual from illegal and unfounded accusations, convictions, and restrictions on his rights and freedoms.

Conducted research indicates systematic large-scale violations related to the protection of crime victims.

Thus, Doctor of Law P.A. Skoblikov believes that one of the most serious problems of modern criminal proceedings is the restriction of access to justice for persons affected by crimes, primarily through unfounded and illegal refusals to initiate criminal proceedings. Often in such cases we can talk about the actual cover-up of crimes, which is given the appearance of a legal decision.”

Research by Doctor of Law A.V. Smirnov prove that only 6% of crime victims can count on the protection of law enforcement agencies.

Therefore, every year more than 9 million people who are victims of crimes cannot obtain the status of “victim” due to the fact that criminal cases are not initiated based on their statements.

These data are confirmed by Prosecutor General Yu. Chaika, who states: “The law is often violated by all preliminary investigation bodies even before the initiation of a criminal case. Every year, prosecutors identify a lot of cases where people are refused to accept their reports of crimes in the presence of indisputable reasons and grounds for initiating a criminal case.

Resolutions to refuse to initiate criminal proceedings canceled by prosecutors number in the millions. The rules for conducting operational-search activities are often violated, often due to ignorance of the law.”

But we are annually reported that the crime detection rate is stable, equal to 56%, and, sometimes, that in 50 regions of the country there is a decrease in crime.

The situation is no better with the protection of individuals from illegal and unfounded accusations, convictions and restrictions on their rights and freedoms. Official statistics claim that about two million criminal cases are initiated annually, of which half are terminated for various reasons. It would seem good that 50% of suspects receive protection at the pre-trial stage of proceedings.

But that's not true. Statistics show that hundreds of thousands of Russians annually do not receive protection from illegal and unfounded accusations, restrictions on rights and freedoms.

Guarantor of the Constitution V. Putin publicly announced in 2015 that in 2014, 200 thousand entrepreneurs were robbed by unlawfully initiating criminal cases. It seemed that after this they would take the necessary measures, but no, in 2015 there were already 230 thousand entrepreneurs using the same method.

Despite the fact that in each case there is all the information on those who committed such outrages, they did not find those responsible for it.

For almost 15 years in Russia there has been a special procedure for making a court decision if the accused agrees with the charge brought against him, which contradicts the requirements of the Constitution of Russia (Articles 2, 15, 18, 21, 49, 50, 51, 118, 120), as well as the Criminal Procedure Code Code of the Russian Federation (Articles 1, 6, 7, 9, 10, 14, 16, Part 2 of Article 77 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation).

However, neither the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation, nor the guarantor of the Constitution, nor the legal community notice this.

It follows from the requirements of Article 49 of the Constitution that the guilt of each accused must be proven in the manner prescribed by federal law. Article 1 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation prescribes that the procedure for criminal proceedings established by the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation is mandatory for participants in criminal proceedings. Therefore, all listed persons are required to comply with the requirements of Part 2 of Art. 77 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation on the testimony of the accused: “The confession by the accused of his guilt in committing a crime can be used as the basis for the charge only if his guilt is confirmed by the totality of the evidence available in the criminal case.”

Consequently, even if the accused agrees with the charge brought against him, there cannot be a trial without examining the evidence collected in the case, but it has been carried out in Russia for many years.

According to statistics from the Judicial Department of the Russian Federation, 740,380 people were convicted in 2016. Of these, 502,666 were convicted without examining and evaluating the evidence collected in the criminal case. Only on the confessions of the defendants alone.

At the same time, thousands of cases are sent to the courts that could have been terminated during the preliminary investigation.

Thus, in 2016, the courts dismissed 16,269 criminal cases due to the absence of an event, corpus delicti or non-involvement in the commission of a crime, as well as 213,090 on other grounds.

Article 10 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation prescribes that no one can be detained on suspicion of committing a crime or taken into custody in the absence of legal grounds provided for by the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation.

Detention is possible only if there is a legal and justified decision to bring a person into custody as an accused, but when taking a person into custody, the courts do not check the execution of the procedure for bringing a person into custody as an accused, which is established in Article 171 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation. They do not check whether the investigator had enough evidence to charge the person with the crime of which he accused.

Thus, judges do not carry out what the principles of criminal procedure require.

The foregoing makes the problem of reforming legislation and existing law enforcement practice in the courts, which contradicts the Basic Law of the country, especially relevant.

It seems that the guarantor of the Constitution, who forms the composition of the executors of the judiciary, must organize the work of the judicial system so that the bearers of the judicial power are dependent on the requirements of the Constitution of Russia and the procedure of legal proceedings.

But what if, after 18 years in power, V. Putin has never achieved this, but again wants to be the guarantor of the Constitution?

Misconception (error) is a misconception about any fact when concluding a contract, regardless of the will of the counterparty. Misconception (mistake) differs from deception in that the second party does not influence the erring party in order to induce an unprofitable transaction. An obligation arising from a contract made in error is considered void.

The error could not arise from the extreme negligence of one of the parties due to the fact that, through its own fault, it did not delve into the transaction, despite the fact that all the facts were communicated to it. Misconception could only arise from ignorance of the facts (error facti) essential to the conclusion of the contract.

Just like error due to extreme negligence, error due to ignorance of a legal regulation (error iuris) was not recognized. It was believed that Roman citizens could not be mistaken regarding the provisions of the law; it was a priori believed that all citizens were legally savvy: “Iuris quidem ignorantiam cuique nocere” - “everyone is harmed by ignorance of the law” (D. 22. 6. 9). Only women, warriors, minors and some illiterate persons could refer to error iuris, but only as an exception.

The following misconceptions may have arisen when concluding a transaction:

• – error in the essence and nature of the transaction (error in negotio). If one party thought that they were selling an item, and the other believed that it was being given as a gift, then a misconception arose in the nature of the transaction. The will of the parties regarding the nature of the transaction must be the same, therefore, in this case, the will to enter into an agreement was imaginary, and the transaction was declared invalid;
• – an error in the subject of the transaction (error in re, error in corpore) leads to its invalidity: “When there is a disagreement regarding the subject itself, the sale is obviously invalid” (D. 18. I. 9). As with a mistake in the essence of the transaction, the problem lies in the need for the agreed will of the parties to enter into the transaction, and if there is no agreement on such an essential condition as the object, then the transaction cannot create an obligation. If, for example, there was a mistake in the name of the object, but not in the object itself, the transaction was recognized as valid: “An erroneous description of the object does not harm” (D. 35. 1.33);
• – error about the essence of an object (error substantial) is a misconception about the material from which the object is made. For example, the party believed that gold jewelry was purchased, but it turned out that it was only gilded. There were different opinions regarding such errors. Some Roman jurists believed that what is bought is a thing, not its material. Others argued that the material is of great importance in the purchase, so the material of the item is an essential term of the contract and a mistake as to the nature of the item should lead to the voidness of the transaction. Directly opposite statements are known from such Roman jurists as Marcellus and Ulpian, the first of whom emphasized the insignificance of the material, and the second, on the contrary, spoke of its significance. Gradually, the opinion about the significance of the material prevailed and error substantia began to be recognized as law;
• – error in the identity of the counterparty (error in persona) An error in the identity of the party with whom the transaction was concluded most often occurred in acts of inheritance and marriage law, as well as transactions in which the occurrence of an obligation was associated with a specific person (for example, a partnership agreement).