The technique reveals the subject’s ability to differentiate the essential features of objects or phenomena from unimportant, secondary ones. In addition, the presence of a number of tasks that are identical in the nature of their implementation makes it possible to judge the sequence of the subject’s reasoning. For the study, use special forms or offer the test subject verbal tasks:

Garden(plants, gardener, dog, fence, earth)

River(shore, fish, fisherman, mud, water)

Cube(corners, drawing, side, stone, wood)

Division(class, dividend, pencil, divider, paper)

Reading(eyes, book, picture, print, word)

A game(cards, players, fines, punishments, rules).

Instructions are given in advance: “On each line, one word is before the brackets, and five are in the brackets. All words in brackets have some relation to the word before the brackets. You must choose from five the two most significant, which are integral features of the word in front of the brackets. Pick just two and highlight them.” Often, subjects begin a task without carefully listening to the instructions, and therefore their solutions are superficial. In these cases, you should draw the subject's attention to the fact that he has not mastered the task that needs to be repeated. Some patients, usually with intellectual disability, do not immediately understand what is required of them. With such patients, it is advisable to solve one or two problems together.

The words in the tasks are selected in such a way that the subject has to demonstrate his ability to grasp the abstract meaning of certain concepts and abandon the easier, but incorrect method of solution, in which private, concrete situational features are highlighted instead of essential ones. So, for example, for the word “game” the correct solution includes such essential features as “players” and “rules”; to the word “war” - “battles” and “soldiers”. At the same time, some subjects choose the word “cards” in the first case, and “guns” in the second case. When solving the task in this way, the results should be discussed with the subject. Sometimes even the researcher’s hint that we are talking about a game and war in the general, abstract meaning of these concepts does not help the subject find the right solution. This indicates an insufficient level of generalization and abstraction processes. Erroneous decisions can also be in the nature of individual inconsistent judgments (for example, in asthenic conditions). In these cases, when patients draw their attention to a mistake, they correct it themselves.

Formation of analogies

To complete this task, the subject must be able to establish logical connections and relationships between concepts. In addition, as in the study using the previous method, violations of the sequence of judgments are easily detected in the experiment when the subject temporarily ceases to follow his chosen mode of solving a task. However, in contrast to the identification of essential features, the method of forming analogies contains less monotonous tasks. Analogies in different tasks are constructed according to different principles, and the presence of inertia of mental processes in patients makes it much more difficult for them to complete the task: in the subsequent task they try to identify an analogy according to the principle of the previous task. A distinction is made between the formation of simple and complex analogies.

Formation of simple analogies is done using special forms on which pairs of sample words are located on the left, by analogy with which a pair of words should be highlighted in the right half of the form. Moreover, at the top right, the first word of the desired pair is indicated, and the bottom one must be selected from the five. For example:

Electricity steam

wire light bulb, current, water, pipes, boiling

The subject is explained that just as electricity travels through wires, steam travels through pipes. As an example, it is imperative to choose problems where analogies are constructed according to different principles. For some subjects, this serves as a warning about the possibility of errors. Sometimes the principle of completing a task can be explained by an arithmetic example of the formation of proportions. This explanation is successful with a certain intellectual integrity.

When analyzing the results, it is important not only to detect errors, but also to motivate them and the possibility of correction. This method reveals violations of the logical structure of thinking, but errors such as “slips” are not corrected, while inconsistent judgments due to exhaustion are corrected by patients as soon as they notice them. The discovery of the possibility of correcting errors during the experiment and preventing them in the future indicates a certain preservation of critical thinking.

In addition to the verbal version of the method of forming simple analogies, its subject variants can also be used. As examples for this, you can use some Raven tables.

Formation of complex analogies involves the identification of complex, abstract logical relations. Due to the greater difficulty of this technique, it is used in the study of individuals with secondary and higher education.

To conduct the study, special forms are used.

1. SHEEP-HERD

2. RASPBERRY-BERRY

3. SEA - OCEAN

4. LIGHT-DARK

5. POISONING - DEATH

6. ENEMY - ENEMY

FEAR - ESCAPE WORD - PHRASE

REVENGE - ARSON CHIVILITY - SLEEPESS

PHYSICS - SCIENCE FREEDOM - INDEPENDENCE

TEN - THE NUMBER OF REST - MOVEMENT

CORRECT - TRUE Idleness - Idleness

BED - VEGETABLE GARDEN SINGING - ART

CHAPTER - NOVEL PRAISE - ABUSE

PAIR - TWO THRUGGLE - STINGY

COOL - FROST DECEPTION - DISTRUST

The subject is instructed that at the top of the form there are six pairs of words, each of which has certain relationships. These relationships are analyzed, for example, “sheep - herd” - part and whole, “raspberry - berry” - definition, “sea - ocean” differ quantitatively, etc. Then the subject’s attention is drawn to the pairs of words below, the principle of connection which he must compare with one of the samples. Against each pair, he puts the number that stands next to the sample pair. An approximate solution to the task is as follows: “The chapter is part of the novel, just as a sheep is part of the flock.”

Discussion, together with the patient, of the erroneous decisions he has made provides the researcher with material on the basis of which one can judge violations of the logical structure of thinking, its focus and criticality.

Comparison of concepts

1. The technique is used to study the thinking of patients, the processes of analysis and synthesis. It has been used for a very long time, especially widely used in the school of Acad. V. M. Bekhtereva.

2. The experimenter prepares 8-10 pairs of words from the set he has to compare. The technique has been tested and is suitable for studying children and adults of different educational levels. Applicable for studying bedridden patients or inaccessible patients who refuse to perform experimental work. In addition, it is very convenient when it is necessary to repeat studies of patients to assess the variability of their condition. For example, some authors used this technique when assessing the effect of a drug on the thinking process of patients.

3. The patient is asked to say “how similar and how different” these concepts are. Write down all his answers in full. The experimenter must insist that the patient first indicate the similarities between concepts, and only then the differences. If the patient does not immediately understand the task, you can compare some easy pair of words together.

When offering the first incomparable pair (for example, river-bird), the experimenter carefully observes the patient’s facial expressions and behavior. If the patient expresses surprise, confusion, or simply remains silent, at a loss, he is immediately given an explanation: “There are pairs of objects (or concepts) that are incomparable. In this case, you should answer: “They cannot be compared.” If the patient immediately begins to compare this pair, his answer is recorded, but then an explanation is still given regarding the “incomparable” pairs. In the future, such explanations are no longer given, but the patient’s answers about each pair are simply recorded.

4. When assessing the answers of patients, one should take into account whether they are able to identify significant signs of similarity and difference between concepts. The inability to identify signs of similarity, as well as significant signs of difference, indicates the weakness of the patient’s generalizations and his inclination to specific thinking. The second thing you should pay attention to is whether the patient can withstand the comparison plan given to him or whether his thought “slides” somewhere to the side and his judgments turn out to be devoid of logical consistency.

So, for example, a patient with schizophrenia in a subacute state gives the following abstruse and ungrammatical comparison of rain and snow: “Snow is the name of all the microns and absent points that can be under frost, and rain, consisting of water, and it can be in close cooperation " Another patient compares rain and snow like this: “Rain is water droplets, and snow is frost, snow is snow, and water is water, what difference could there be - these are completely different things... It snows and water falls, snow falls, and the rain also falls...”

It is convenient to combine this technique with pharmacological tests and record patient statements using a tape recorder.

Target: the technique is used to study the characteristics of thinking, the ability to differentiate the essential features of objects or phenomena from unimportant, secondary ones. By the nature of the distinguished features, one can judge the predominance of one or another style of thinking: concrete or abstract.

Material: a form with a series of words printed on it. Each row consists of five words in brackets and one before the brackets.

The test is suitable for examining adolescents and adults. The words in the tasks are selected in such a way that the subject must demonstrate his ability to grasp the abstract meaning of certain concepts and abandon the easier, more conspicuous, but incorrect method of solution in which private, concrete situational features are highlighted instead of essential ones.

Instructions for children and teenagers:“Here are given a series of words that make up the tasks. In each line there is one word before the brackets, and in the brackets there are 5 words to choose from. You need to choose from these five words only two that are most closely related to the word before the brackets - “garden ", and in parentheses the words: "plants, gardener, dog, fence, earth." A garden can exist without a dog, a fence and even without a gardener, but without land and plants there can be no garden. This means you should choose exactly 2 words - "earth " and "plants".

Instructions for adults:"On each line of the form you will find one word before the brackets, and then five words in brackets. All the words in the brackets have some relationship to the one before the brackets. Choose only two that are most related to the word before the parentheses.

Form

1. Garden (plants, gardener, dog, fence, land).

2. River (shore, fish, fisherman, mud, water).

3. City (car, buildings, crowd, street, bicycle).

4. Barn (hayloft, horse, roof, livestock, walls).

5. Cube (corners, drawing, side, stone, wood).

6. Division (class, dividend, pencil, divider, paper).

7. Ring (diameter, diamond, hallmark, circumference, gold).

8. Reading (eyes, book, glasses, text, word).

9. Newspaper (true, incident, crossword, paper, editor).

10. Game (cards, players, chips, punishments, rules).

11. War (plane, guns, battles, guns, soldiers).

12. Book (drawings, story, paper, table of contents, text).

14. Earthquake (fire, death, ground vibrations, noise, flood).

15. Library (tables, books, reading room, wardrobe, readers).

16. Forest (soil, mushrooms, hunter, tree, wolf).

17. Sports (medal, orchestra, competition, victory, stadium).

18. Hospital (rooms, injections, doctor, thermometer, patients).

19. Love (roses, feelings, person, date, wedding).

20. Patriotism (city, homeland, friends, family, people).

Answers (key).

1. Plants, soil. 11. Battles, soldiers.

2. Shore, water. 12. Paper, text.

4. Roof, walls 14. Soil vibrations, noise.

5. Corners, side. 15. Books, readers.

6. Dividend, divisor. 16. Soil, tree.

7. Diameter, circumference. 17. Competitions, victory.

8. Eyes, text. 18. Doctor, patients.

9. Paper, editor. 19. Feelings, man.

10. Players, rules. 20. Motherland, people.

This test is usually included in a battery of reasoning tests. In all cases of independent performance of tasks, the test subject’s decisions should be discussed by asking him questions. Often during the discussion, the subject makes additional judgments and corrects mistakes.

All decisions, questions, as well as additional judgments of the subject are recorded in the protocol. The test is intended primarily for individual examination.

Interpretation.

The presence of more erroneous judgments indicates the predominance of a concrete-situational style of thinking over an abstract-logical one. If the subject gives erroneous answers at the beginning, this can be interpreted as haste and impulsiveness. The results are assessed using the table.

Target: study of the operation of abstraction, the ability to differentiate essential features of objects or phenomena from unimportant, secondary ones.

Stimulus material and equipment

A form with a series of words printed on it. Each row consists of five words in brackets and one before the brackets. Protocol for recording the subject's answers, pen.

Progress

The subject is presented with the text of the method and asked to establish a connection between the word in front of the brackets and the words in brackets, choosing from the latter those that best reflect the meaning of the first word.

The words in the tasks are selected in such a way that the subject must demonstrate his ability to grasp the abstract meaning of certain concepts and abandon the easier, more conspicuous, but incorrect method of solution, in which private, concrete situational features are highlighted instead of essential ones.

After independently completing the tasks, the test subject’s decisions should be discussed by asking him clarifying questions. Often during the discussion, the subject makes additional judgments and corrects mistakes.

All decisions, questions, as well as additional judgments of the subject are recorded in the protocol.

Instructions to the subject

Instructions for children: “Here are a series of words that make up the tasks. In each line there is one word before the brackets, and in the brackets there are 5 words to choose from. From these five words, you need to choose only two that are most closely related to the word in front of the brackets. For example, the word before the brackets is “garden”, and in the brackets are the words: “plants, gardener, dog, fence, earth.” A garden can exist without a dog, a fence, and even without a gardener, but there can be no garden without soil and plants. This means that you should choose exactly these 2 words – “earth” and “plants.”

Instructions for adults: “In each line of the form you will find one word before the brackets, and then five words in brackets. All words in brackets have some relation to the word before the brackets. Choose only two of them that are most closely related to the word in front of the brackets.”

Processing the results

The subject's answers are compared with the key.

The key to the “Identification of essential features” technique

1. Plants, earth
2. Shore, water
3. Buildings, street
4. Roof, walls
5. Angles, side
6. Dividend, divisor
7. Diameter, roundness
8. Eyes, text
9. Paper, editor
10. Players, rules
11. Battle, soldiers
12. Paper, text
13. Voice, melody
14. Ground vibrations, noise
15. Books, readers
16. Soil, tree
17. Competitions, victory
18. Doctor, sick
19. Feelings, man
20. Motherland, man

For each correct answer (two words are indicated correctly), the subject is assigned 1 point. 0.5 points corresponds to one correctly chosen word and 0 points when the subject could not choose a single word correctly.

The maximum number of points is 20. Results of less than 10 points are assessed as unsatisfactory, indicating the inability of the subject to compare, analyze and generalize the selected characteristics.

The presence of more erroneous judgments indicates the predominance of a concrete-situational style of thinking over an abstract-logical one. If the subject gives incorrect answers at first, but then corrects them, then this can be interpreted as haste and impulsiveness.

Stimulus material for the “Identification of essential features” technique

1. Garden (plants, gardener, dog, fence, land)

2. River (shore, fish, fisherman, mud, water)

3. City (car, buildings, crowd, street, bicycle)

4. Barn (hayloft, horse, roof, livestock, walls)

5. Cube (corners, drawing, side, stone, wood)

6. Division (class, dividend, pencil, divider, paper)

7. Ring (diameter, diamond, hallmark, roundness, gold)

8. Reading (eyes, book, text, glasses, word)

9. Newspaper (truth, incident, crossword, paper, editor)

10. Game (cards, players, chips, penalties, rules)

11. War (plane, guns, battles, guns, soldiers)

12. Book (drawings, story, paper, table of contents, text)

14. Earthquake (fire, death, ground vibrations, noise, flood)

15. Library (tables, books, reading room, wardrobe, readers)

16. Forest (soil, mushrooms, hunter, tree, wolf)

17. Sports (medal, orchestra, competition, victory, stadium)

18. Hospital (room, injections, doctor, thermometer, patients)

19. Love (roses, feelings, person, date, wedding)

20. Patriotism (city, friends, homeland, family, people)

Methodology "Identification of essential features"
Purpose: the technique is used for research
features of thinking, ability to differentiate
essential features of objects or phenomena from
insignificant, secondary. The nature
distinguished characteristics can be judged on the predominance
one or another style of thinking: specific or
abstract.
Material: blank with rows printed on it
words Each row consists of five words in brackets and
one - before the brackets.
The test is suitable for examining adolescents and
adults. The words in the problems are chosen in such a way that
the examinee must demonstrate his
the ability to grasp the abstract meaning of certain
concepts and abandon the easier ones that rush into
eyes, but the wrong method of solution in which instead
significant ones, particular ones are highlighted, specifically -
situational signs.
Instructions for children and adolescents: "Here are given
series of words that make up tasks. In each
there is one word in the line before the brackets, and 5 in the brackets
words to choose from. You need to choose from these five words
only two that are most closely related to
the word before the brackets is “garden”, and the words in the brackets are:
"plants, gardener, dog, fence, earth." The garden can
exist without a dog, a fence and even without a gardener,
but without soil and plants there can be no garden. Means
You should choose exactly 2 words - “earth” and “plants”.
Instructions for adults: "In every line
form you will find one word before the brackets,
and then - five words in brackets. All words in
parentheses have something to do with what comes before
parentheses. Select only two that are in
greatest connection with the word before the brackets.

Form
1. Garden (plants, gardener, dog, fence, land).
2. River (shore, fish, fisherman, mud, water).

3. City (car, buildings, crowd, street,
bike).
4. Barn (hayloft, horse, roof, livestock, walls).
5. Cube (corners, drawing, side, stone, wood).
6. Division (class, dividend, pencil, divisor,
7. Ring (diameter, diamond, hallmark, circumference, gold).
8. Reading (eyes, book, glasses, text, word).
9. Newspaper (true, incident, crossword, paper,
10. Game (cards, players, chips, punishments, rules).
11. War (plane, guns, battles, guns,
12. Book (drawings, story, paper, table of contents,
13. Singing (ringing, art, voice, applause,
14. Earthquake (fire, death, ground vibrations,
noise, flood).
wardrobe, readers).
15. Library (tables, books, reading room,
16. Forest (soil, mushrooms, hunter, tree, wolf).
17. Sports (medal, orchestra, competition, victory,
18. Hospital (room, injections, doctor, thermometer,
paper).
editor).
soldiers).
text).
melody).
stadium).
sick).
wedding).
Human).
19. Love (roses, feelings, person, date,
20. Patriotism (city, homeland, friends, family,

Answers (key).
1. Plants, soil. 11. Battles, soldiers.
2. Shore, water. 12. Paper, text.
3. Buildings, street. 13. Voice, melody.
4. Roof, walls 14. Soil vibrations, noise.
5. Corners, side. 15. Books, readers.
6. Dividend, divisor. 16. Soil, tree.
7. Diameter, circumference. 17. Competitions, victory.
8. Eyes, text. 18. Doctor, patients.
9. Paper, editor. 19. Feelings, man.

10. Players, rules. 20. Motherland, people.

This test is usually included in a battery of tests for
thinking. In all cases of independent
fulfillment of the test subject's decision tasks, it is necessary
discuss by asking him questions. Often in the process
discussion, the subject makes additional judgments,
corrects errors.
All solutions, questions, as well as additional
the subject's judgments are recorded in the protocol. Test
intended mainly for individual
examinations.

Interpretation.
Presence of more erroneous judgments
indicates the predominance of specific
situational style of thinking over abstract
logical. If the subject gives erroneous answers at the beginning
answers, then this can be interpreted as haste
and impulsiveness. Evaluation of results is carried out
according to the table.
Grade
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
V
Points
Quantity
rules
answers
quality
ny
2
0
-
9
1
8
1
1
6-17
1
4-15
1
2-13
1
0-11
9

Target: the technique is used to study the characteristics of thinking, the ability to differentiate the essential features of objects or phenomena from unimportant, secondary ones. By the nature of the distinguished features, one can judge the predominance of one or another style of thinking: concrete or abstract.

Material: a form with a series of words printed on it. Each row consists of five words in brackets and one before the brackets.

The test is suitable for examining adolescents and adults. The words in the tasks are selected in such a way that the subject must demonstrate his ability to grasp the abstract meaning of certain concepts and abandon the easier, more conspicuous, but incorrect method of solution, in which private, specifically situational features are highlighted instead of essential ones.

Instructions for children and teenagers:“Here are given a series of words that make up the tasks. In each line there is one word before the brackets, and in the brackets there are 5 words to choose from. You need to choose from these five words only two that are most closely related to the word before the brackets - “garden”, and in the brackets the words: “plants, gardener, dog, fence, earth.” A garden can exist without a dog, a fence, and even without a gardener, but there can be no garden without soil and plants. This means you should choose exactly 2 words - “earth” and “plants”.

Instructions for adults:“On each line of the form you will find one word before the brackets, and then five words in brackets. All words in brackets have some relation to the word before the brackets. Choose only the two that are most related to the word before the brackets.

Form

1. Garden (plants, gardener, dog, fence, land).

2. River (shore, fish, fisherman, mud, water).

3. City (car, buildings, crowd, street, bicycle).

4. Barn (hayloft, horse, roof, livestock, walls).

5. Cube (corners, drawing, side, stone, wood).

6. Division (class, dividend, pencil, divider, paper).

7. Ring (diameter, diamond, hallmark, circumference, gold).

8. Reading (eyes, book, glasses, text, word).

9. Newspaper (true, incident, crossword, paper, editor).

10. Game (cards, players, chips, punishments, rules).

11. War (plane, guns, battles, guns, soldiers).

12. Book (drawings, story, paper, table of contents, text).

14. Earthquake (fire, death, ground vibrations, noise, flood).

15. Library (tables, books, reading room, wardrobe, readers).

16. Forest (soil, mushrooms, hunter, tree, wolf).

17. Sports (medal, orchestra, competition, victory, stadium).

18. Hospital (rooms, injections, doctor, thermometer, patients).

19. Love (roses, feelings, person, date, wedding).

20. Patriotism (city, homeland, friends, family, people).

Answers (key).

1. Plants, soil. 11. Battles, soldiers.

2. Shore, water. 12. Paper, text.

4. Roof, walls 14. Soil vibrations, noise.

5. Corners, side. 15. Books, readers.

6. Dividend, divisor. 16. Soil, tree.

7. Diameter, circumference. 17. Competitions, victory.

8. Eyes, text. 18. Doctor, patients.

9. Paper, editor. 19. Feelings, man.

10. Players, rules. 20. Motherland, people.

This test is usually included in a battery of reasoning tests. In all cases of independent performance of tasks, the test subject’s decisions should be discussed by asking him questions. Often during the discussion, the subject makes additional judgments and corrects mistakes.

All decisions, questions, as well as additional judgments of the subject are recorded in the protocol. The test is intended primarily for individual examination.

Interpretation.

The presence of more erroneous judgments indicates the predominance of a concrete-situational style of thinking over an abstract-logical one. If the subject gives erroneous answers at the beginning, this can be interpreted as haste and impulsiveness. The results are assessed using the table.

Verbal-logical thinking.
Methods for understanding stories: content, meaning, morality.

Instructions: “Listen carefully to the story and retell it. Tell me, what’s the matter here, what does this story teach, what is the meaning of the story?” Repeat the task, drawing the child’s attention to each phrase, the semantic part of the story.

Possible questions for the story “The Lion and the Mouse”:

1. Is this story about good or evil?
2. And who did good to whom? What kind of good? Why?
3. Why did the lion let go of the mouse?
4. Why did the lion laugh?
5. What does this story teach? There are stories that teach not to lie, not to steal, but what does this one teach?

Materials for diagnosing the development of verbal-logical thinking

Lion and mouse
L.N. Tolstoy

The lion was sleeping. A mouse ran over his body. He woke up and caught her. The mouse began to ask him to let her go, and promised to do him good too. Leo laughed loudly and let her go.

Then the hunters caught the lion and tied it to a tree with a rope. The mouse heard the lion's roar, came running, chewed the rope and saved the lion.

Clever Crow

The crow wanted to drink. There was a jug of water in the yard, and in the jug there was only water at the bottom. The crow could not get water. She began throwing pebbles into the jug and threw so many that the water became higher and could be drunk.

Ant and dove

The ant wanted to drink and went down to the stream. The water overwhelmed him and he began to drown.

A dove flying past noticed this and threw a branch into the stream. The ant climbed onto this branch and escaped.

The next day the ant saw that the hunter wanted to go catch the dove in the net. It crawled up to him and bit him on the leg. The hunter screamed in pain and dropped his net. The dove fluttered and flew away.

Jackdaw and pigeons

The jackdaw heard that the pigeons were well fed, turned white and flew into the dovecote. The pigeons accepted her as one of their own and fed her, but the jackdaw could not resist and croaked like a jackdaw. Then the pigeons drove her away. She went back to the jackdaws, but they didn’t accept her either.