Abstract on the history of Russia

"Epoch palace coups V XVIII century"

2010

1. Introduction

2.1. Reasons for palace coups

2.2. The era of palace coups

3.Conclusion

4.References

Introduction

The culprit of the instability of the supreme power in the 18th century in Russia was precisely Peter I, who in 1722 issued the “Charter on the Succession to the Throne.” This legal act secured the right of the autocrat to appoint any successor at his discretion.

Thus, the circle of possible contenders for the throne expanded.

After the death of Peter I, the struggle for the Russian throne intensified between contenders expressing the interests of various groups of the noble class. The replacement of the throne was most often carried out through palace coups in which the noble guard took part. They were carried out relatively easily, because they did not aim to radically change the policy of the state. Everyone who came to supreme power in Russia invariably, to one degree or another, contributed to strengthening the position of the nobility by expanding its class privileges and strengthening power over the serf peasantry. It is not for nothing that the era of palace coups in Russia is called the time of the formation of a noble empire.

Causes of palace coups

Ironically, Peter I was unable to use his own decree on succession to the throne due to his sudden death. In the fall of 1724, the tsar caught a cold while helping to rescue soldiers from a shipwrecked boat on the seashore near St. Petersburg. In January, when his situation became hopeless, Peter began to draw up his will on the eve of his death, January 27, and did not have time to carry out his plans. From what he wrote, only the words remained: “give everything...”

Among his heirs are:

grandson Peter, son of the executed Tsarevich Alexei;

second wife Ekaterina Alekseevna

a captive from Livonia, who bore the name of Martha Skavronskaya,

a pupil of Pastor Gluck, with whom Peter became acquainted in 1704, married in 1712 and whom he crowned with the imperial crown in 1724. They had two sons, Peter and Paul, who died in infancy, and two daughters: Anna, married to Duke of Holstein, and Elizabeth, who remained unmarried and childless.

In addition to this dynastic line, there was another - the descendants of Tsar Ivan Alekseevich, the half-brother of Peter I, who had two daughters - Anna and Catherine. Peter married the first one in 1711 to the Duke of Courland, the second to the Duke of Mecklenburg.

When analyzing the era of palace coups, it is important to pay attention to the following points.

Firstly, the initiators of the coups were various palace groups who sought to elevate their protégé to the throne.

The main reason that formed the basis of the palace coups was the contradictions between various noble groups in relation to Peter's legacy. It would be a simplification to consider that the split occurred along the lines of acceptance and non-acceptance of reforms. Both the so-called “new nobility”, which emerged during the years of Peter thanks to their official zeal, and the aristocratic party tried to soften the course of reforms, hoping in one form or another to give a respite to society, and, first of all, to themselves. But each of these groups defended their narrow-class interests and privileges, which created fertile ground for internal political struggle.

Secondly, the most important consequence of the coups was the strengthening of the economic and political positions of the nobility.

The alienation of the masses from politics and their passivity served as fertile ground for palace intrigues and coups.

Thirdly, the driving force behind the coups was the Guard. Indeed, it was the Guard during the period under review that decided the question of who should be on the throne.

Active role in political life The country at this time began to play the role of the guard, which Peter raised as a privileged “support” of the autocracy, which, moreover, took upon itself the right to control the conformity of the personality and policies of the monarch with the legacy that her “beloved emperor” left.

In general, it would be most correct to evaluate the time of palace coups as the period of development of the noble empire from Peter's formations to the new major modernization of the country under Catherine 2. In the second quarter - mid-18th century there were no major reforms (moreover, according to some scientists, the period before Elizabeth Petrovna's reign is assessed as a period of counter-reforms).

The era of palace coups

Coup in favor of Ekaterina Alekseevna

The accession of Catherine 1 (1725-1727) led to a sharp strengthening of the position of Menshikov, who became the de facto ruler of the country. Attempts to somewhat curb his lust for power and greed with the help of the Supreme Privy Council (SPC), created under the empress, to which the first three collegiums, as well as the Senate, were subordinate, led nowhere. Moreover, the temporary worker decided to strengthen his position through the marriage of his daughter with Peter’s young grandson.

In May 1727, Catherine I died and, according to her will, 12-year-old Peter II (1727-1730) became emperor under the regency of the VTS. Menshikov's influence at court increased, and he even received the coveted rank of generalissimo.

But, having alienated old allies and not gaining new ones among the noble nobility, he soon lost influence on the young emperor and in September 1727 he was arrested and exiled with his entire family to Berezovo, where he soon died.

A significant role in discrediting Menshikov’s personality in the eyes of the young emperor was played by Dolgoruky, as well as a member of the military technical cooperation, the tsar’s educator, nominated for this position by Menshikov himself - A.I. Osterman is a deft diplomat who knew how, depending on the balance of power and the political situation, to change his views, allies and patrons.

The overthrow of Menshikov was, in essence, a de facto palace coup, because the composition of the military-technical cooperation had changed. In which aristocratic families began to predominate (Dolgoruky and Golitsyn), and A.I. began to play a key role. Osterman; the regency of the military-technical cooperation was put to an end, Peter II declared himself a full-fledged ruler, surrounded by new favorites; a course was outlined aimed at revising the reforms of Peter I.

Soon the court left St. Petersburg and moved to Moscow, which attracted the emperor due to the presence of richer hunting grounds. The sister of the Tsar's favorite, Ekaterina Dolgorukaya, was engaged to Peter II, but during preparations for the wedding, he died of smallpox. And again the question of the heir to the throne arose, since with the death of Peter II the male line of the Romanovs was cut short, and he did not have time to appoint a successor for himself.

In the conditions of a political crisis and timelessness, the Military Technical Council, which by that time consisted of 8 people (5 seats belonged to the Dolgorukys and Golitsyns), decided to invite the niece of Peter I, Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna, to the throne. It was also extremely important that she had no supporters or any connections in Russia. As a result, this made it possible, luring her with an invitation to the brilliant St. Petersburg throne, to impose her own conditions and obtain her consent to limit the power of the monarch.

Anna Ioannovna and her “conditions”

After the death of Peter II, the question of succession to the throne arose again. The Dolgorukys' attempt to enthrone the former royal bride, Ekaterina Dolgoruky, was unsuccessful. The Golitsyn family, traditionally competing with the Dolgorukys, nominated Anna of Courland, the niece of Peter I, as their heir. Anna Ioannovna received the crown at the cost of signing the Conditions limiting her power in favor of the Supreme Privy Council. In Russia, instead of an absolute monarchy, a limited monarchy was established.

However, the majority of aristocrats (and representatives of other segments of the population) did not like this idea of ​​the “supreme leaders”. They considered the Conditions an attempt to establish a regime in Russia in which all power would belong to two families - the Golitsyns and the Dolgorukys. After Anna Ioannovna publicly tore apart the Conditions, the Dolgoruky clan was subjected to repression. " She liquidated the military-technical cooperation, creating in its place a Cabinet of Ministers headed by Osterman.

Gradually, Anna went to satisfy the most urgent demands of the Russian nobility: their service life was limited to 25 years; that part of the Decree on Single Inheritance was cancelled, which limited the right of nobles to dispose of the estate when it was transferred by inheritance; making it easier to obtain an officer's rank. An accurate description of the personality of the new empress was given by V.O. Klyuchevsky: “Tall and corpulent, with a face more masculine than feminine, callous by nature and even more callous during early widowhood... amidst court adventures in Courland, where she was pushed around like a Russian-Prussian-Polish toy, she, already 37 years old , brought to Moscow an angry and poorly educated mind with a fierce thirst for belated pleasures and rough entertainment.”

The reign of Anna Ioannovna was a time of fierce struggle around the throne. Her all-powerful favorite Biron, Field Marshal B. Kh. Minich, the same Osterman and a new face in court politics - Artemy Petrovich Volynsky - took part in the struggle.

As a result, Volynsky was executed on charges of high treason and attempting to carry out a palace coup against Anna.

Already in 1730, Anna Ioannovna became concerned about the issue of an heir. Since she did not have her own children, she placed all her hopes on her niece, Elizabeth Christina of Mecklenburg. Having received the name Anna Leopoldovna at baptism, she was declared successor. Or rather, the future child of Anna Leopoldovna was declared the heir.

By decree of December 17, 1731, the autocrat restored Peter’s “Charter on Heritage” of 1722 into force. And then the population of Russia took an oath of allegiance to the unborn son of the tsar’s niece.

In 1732, Prince Anton Ulrich of Brunswick Bevern of Blakenburg of Luneburg, a scion of one of the most ancient royal families in Europe - the Welfs, arrived in Russia. He came to Russia under the guise of entering the Russian service, but his main mission was to become the husband of Anna Leopoldovna. In 1739, his engagement and wedding to Anna Leopoldovna took place, and in 1740 the long-awaited heir was born.

Thus, the threat from possible contenders - Elizaveta Petrovna and Karl Peter Ulrich of Holstein (the future Peter III) was eliminated. In 1740 Anna Ioannovna died. In Russia, despite the fact that the heir, John VI, has been proclaimed (some authors call him John III), another palace coup is brewing...Biron is proclaimed regent.

Biron's regency - Minich's coup

The short period of the regency of Ernst-Johann Biron in historical works is covered and assessed quite unambiguously. Biron's regency, which became possible with the active support of the same Minikh, Osterman, Cherkassky, lasted no more than three weeks. This speaks exclusively of E.I. Biron’s inability to govern the state independently, of his inability (or rather, unwillingness) to consolidate with those who could be useful to him.

Even having received the right to regency, Biron continues to fight with Minich. This time is also characterized by the confrontation between the regent and Anna Leopoldovna. In addition, Biron finally turns the princess’s husband, Anton Ulrich, against himself.

Discontent with the regent was brewing in the country. On November 8, 1740, another palace coup took place, only the “soul” of the conspiracy was Field Marshal General B. Kh. Minich. By the way, it is believed that the first “classic” palace coup was carried out by Field Marshal B. Kh. Minich. The extremely ambitious Minikh counted on one of the first places in the state, but he did not receive either new posts or the expected title of generalissimo from the regent. Adjutant G. Kh. Manstein describes in detail the arrest of Biron and his family in his “Notes on Russia”. In other words, the Germans carried out a coup against the Germans. In addition to the Germans, of course, Russian supporters of the regent also suffered. For example, A.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin - later a famous politician of the Elizabethan reign.

A Manifesto was also published on behalf of the infant emperor, from which it followed that the former regent trampled on the legal rights of him, the emperor, his parents, and in general had the audacity to do all sorts of “... nasty things.” Thus, the palace coup received official justification! Historians have always unequivocally assessed this coup. Here is how S. M. Solovyov writes: “Russia was given to an immoral and mediocre foreigner as the price of a shameful relationship! This could not be tolerated."

“Patriotic” coup of Elizaveta Petrovna

On November 25, 1741, another (and not the last in the 18th century) palace coup took place, and it was initiated by Elizaveta Petrovna, the youngest daughter of Peter I.

A lot has been written about this revolution and almost all historical (and even more so artistic) literature interprets this event as a “triumph of the Russian spirit”, as the end of foreign dominance, as the only possible and even completely legal act.

V. O. Klyuchevsky calls Elizabeth as follows: “The most legitimate of all the successors and successors of Peter I.” The name of Tsarevna Elizabeth was mentioned at every change of rulers since 1725, but each time the crown went to someone else. Elizabeth has always been very calm about advice and calls to act for the sake of accession to the throne. It must be said that in 1741, “Petrov’s daughter” succumbed to the persuasion of her entourage only under the influence of fear of an unknown future.

In public opinion, Elizabeth, by the will of political circumstances, earned the reputation of the head of a certain “Russian” party opposing the dominance of foreigners at the courts of Anna Ioannovna and Anna Leopoldovna. In this respect, the Elizabeth of 1741 was the exact opposite of the Elizabeth of 1725.

After the death of Peter, it was his daughters who, along with Catherine, were considered the main patrons of foreigners. Elizabeth in alliance with Anna Petrovna were symbols of Holstein influence on the Russian court. (Moreover, at that moment Elizabeth was considered the bride of the Lubeck Prince-Bishop Charles-August, who later died of a transient illness).

It should be noted that Elizabeth was not some special Russian patriot; she simply became the center of attraction for that court group that was currently removed from power. The patriotic feelings of Elizabeth's supporters were caused not so much by rejection of foreigners, but by their own interests.

In addition, there are inexorable facts that indicate that Elizabeth collaborated with French and Swedish agents of influence - Chetardy and Nolken, and that it was foreign courts that played an important role in the princess’s (essentially) anti-government adventure.

The night of the coup entered not only the history books, but also legends. There is a well-known phrase with which the crown princess led the guards on the assault: “Do you know whose daughter I am?” This was quite enough - Peter's authority was too great in all strata of society.

Elizabeth's victory brought to power a new generation of courtiers and prominent politicians - the Shuvalov family, M.I. Vorontsov.

Of course, German influence at the Russian court practically disappeared.

However, having established herself on the throne, Elizabeth declared as her heir the Holstein-Gottorp Prince Karl - Peter - Ulrich, the son of Anna Petrovna, whose wife some time later became Sophia - Augusta - Frederica of Anhalt - Zerbst (Fike). The young princess has learned well the lessons that the Russian history of revolutions taught her - she will successfully implement them.

186 days of Peter III

The coup of June 28, 1762 (July 9, new style) in Russian and Soviet historical literature has always been interpreted unambiguously - smart, decisive, patriotic Catherine overthrows her insignificant husband (a marginal figure and a traitor to Russian interests).

V. O. Klyuchevsky spoke about this event in the following way: “Mixed with the indignant national feeling was the smug consciousness in her (Catherine) that she was creating and giving the Fatherland her own government, albeit illegal, but which would understand and respect its interests better than the legal one.”

...Catherine already in 1756 was planning her future seizure of power. During the serious and prolonged illness of Elizabeth Petrovna, the Grand Duchess made it clear to her “English comrade” H. Williams that he had to wait only for the death of the Empress. (England at that moment was very beneficial from a change in political course in Russia).

However, Elizabeth died only in 1761 and her legal heir, Peter III, ascended the throne.

During his short reign, Peter implemented a number of measures that were supposed to strengthen his position and make his figure popular among the people. So, he abolished the Secret Investigation Office and gave the nobles the opportunity to choose between service and a carefree life on their estate. (“Manifesto on the granting of freedom and liberty to the Russian nobility”).

It is believed, however, that the reason for the coup was precisely the extreme unpopularity of Peter III among the people. He was accused of disrespect for Russian shrines and the conclusion of a “shameful peace” with Prussia.

In fact, Peter led Russia out of the war, which depleted the country's human and economic resources, and in which Russia fulfilled its allied duty to Austria (that is, there was no “Russian interest” in the Seven Years' War).

However, Peter made an unforgivable mistake by declaring his intention to move to recapture Schleswig from Denmark. The guards, who, in fact, supported Catherine in the upcoming coup, were especially worried.

In addition, Peter was in no hurry to be crowned, and in fact, he did not have time to comply with all the formalities that he was obliged to observe as emperor. Frederick II, in his letters, persistently advised Peter to quickly take the crown, but the emperor did not listen to the advice of his idol. Thus, in the eyes of the Russian people he was, as it were, a “fake tsar.”

As for Catherine, as the same Frederick II said: “She was a foreigner on the eve of the divorce” and the coup was her only chance (Peter repeatedly emphasized that he was going to divorce his wife and marry Elizaveta Vorontsova).

The signal for the start of the coup was the arrest of the officer, Preobrazhensky Passek. Alexey Orlov (brother of the favorite) early in the morning brought Catherine to St. Petersburg, where she addressed the soldiers of the Izmailovsky regiment, and then the Semyonovites. This was followed by a prayer service in the Kazan Cathedral and the oath of office of the Senate and Synod.

On the evening of June 28, a “march to Peterhof” was made, where Peter III was supposed to come to celebrate his name day and the name day of his heir Paul. The emperor's indecision and some kind of childish humility did their job - no advice or actions of those close to him could bring Peter out of a state of fear and numbness.

He quickly abandoned the struggle for power and, essentially, for his life. The overthrown autocrat was taken to Ropsha, where, according to most historians, he was killed by his jailers.

Frederick II commented on this event: “He allowed himself to be overthrown like a child who is sent to bed.”

The coup and the rise to power of Catherine II

The new coup was carried out, like the previous ones, by the guards noble regiments; it was directed against the emperor, who very sharply declared his national sympathies and personal oddities of a childish capricious nature.

The coup of 1762 placed on the throne a woman who was not only intelligent and tactful, but also extremely talented, extremely educated, developed and active. The Empress wanted law and order in government; acquaintance with affairs showed her that disorder reigns not only in the details of government, but also in laws; her predecessors were constantly concerned about bringing into a systematic code the entire mass of individual legal provisions that had accumulated since the Code of 1649, and could not cope with this matter.

The first years of Catherine's reign were a difficult time for her. She herself did not know current state affairs and had no assistants: the main businessman of Elizabeth’s time, P.I. Shuvalov, died; She had little confidence in the abilities of other old nobles.

One Count N.I. Panin enjoyed her trust. Under Catherine, Panin became in charge of Russia's foreign affairs. Working hard, Catherine spent the first years of her reign getting to know Russia and the state of affairs, selecting advisers and strengthening her personal position in power. Catherine wanted to establish a broad legislative reform social life Russia to pan-European

grounds. She not only wanted to streamline the legislative material, but sought to create new legislative norms that would contribute to the establishment of order and legality in the state. She wanted to create new legislation, and not bring the old into the system. Already in 1765, Catherine assiduously set about setting out legislative principles and worked without telling anyone about the content of her work. The articles prepared by Catherine were her famous Instructions in his

original edition. Catherine established her principles of new Russian legislation on the basis of the philosophical and journalistic speculations of contemporary European literature. So, according to Catherine, ancient Russia lived with aliens

morals that should have been remade in a European way, because Russia is a European country. Peter began this alteration by introducing European customs, and he succeeded. Now Catherine continues this work and introduces pan-European laws into Russian laws

started. Precisely because they are European, they cannot be alien to Russia, although they may seem so due to their novelty. Catherine gave the Order to the officials, and they cut everything that they considered unnecessary. In 1775, “Institutions for the management of provinces” were published. Instead of the previous 20 provinces that existed in 1766, according to these “institutions on provinces,” by 1795 there were already fifty-one provinces. Previously, the provinces were divided into provinces, and the provinces into districts; Now the provinces are divided directly into districts. Previously, regional division was carried out by chance, which is why it turned out that, for example, the Moscow province had 2,230,000 inhabitants, and Arkhangelsk only 438,000, and yet

the numerical staff of the administration was approximately the same in both provinces. Now, with the new administrative division, it was accepted as a rule that each province should have from 300 to 400 thousand inhabitants, and a district from 20 to 30

thousand. Catherine sought to increase the strength of the administration,

delineate departments and involve in participation in management

zemstvo elements. The legislation on peasants of Catherine's time was still aimed at further limiting peasant rights and strengthening the landowner's power over them. During the peasant unrest in 1765-1766, landowners received the right

exile their peasants not only to a settlement in Siberia (this has already happened before), but also to hard labor “for insolence” to the landowner. The landowner could give the peasant as a soldier at any time, without waiting for the time of recruitment. Decree of 1767 to peasants

it was forbidden to file any complaints against the landowners. During the reign of Catherine, the secularization of church lands, the development of legislation on estates, judicial reform, legislative consolidation of private property, measures to expand trade and entrepreneurship, and the introduction of paper money were carried out.

The historical significance of Catherine’s era is extremely great precisely because in this era the results of previous history were summed up, historical processes that had previously developed were completed. This ability of Catherine to bring to the end, to complete resolution, the questions that history posed to her, forces everyone to recognize her as the paramount historical figure, regardless of her personal mistakes and weaknesses.

Conclusion

Palace coups did not entail changes in the political, much less social, system of society and boiled down to a struggle for power among various noble groups pursuing their own, most often selfish, interests. At the same time, the specific policies of each of the monarchs had their own characteristics, sometimes important for the country. In general, the socio-economic stabilization and foreign policy successes achieved during the reign of Elizabeth created the conditions for more accelerated development and new breakthroughs in foreign policy that would occur under Catherine II.

Bibliography

Minikh I. E.” Russia and the Russian court in the first half of the 18th century"

S.F.Platonov "Lectures on Russian history".

Magazine "Rodina"

http://wale-life.ru/2010/01/05/jepokha-dvorcovykh-perevorotov.html

http://storytime.ru/

Annex 1

Chronological table

Years of reign
1725 – 1762	era of "palace coups"
1725 – 1727	the reign of Peter's wife, Catherine (the country is actually ruled by Menshikov)
1727 – 1730	on the throne is Peter's grandson, Peter II Alekseevich (victory of the nobility, arrest and exile of Menshikov)
	Peter's niece, Anna Ioannovna, was invited to the throne
1730 – 1740	Anna Ioannovna rules, and her favorite Biron has actual power. The dominance of foreigners and repression. After the death of Anna Ioannovna, her sister’s grandson, the baby Ivan Antonovich, ascended the throne
	coup by forces of the Preobrazhensky regiment era coups (3)Abstract >> History ... era palace coups from 1725 to 1762 1. Reasons palace coups in Russia Responsible for the instability of the supreme power in XVIII century ... era palace coups (7) Abstract >> History And he aptly named “ era palace coups" The reasons behind this era coups and temporary workers, rooted, ... Anna - sad era Russian life XVIII century, time of temporary workers, ... and before. In the middle XVIII V. the first symptoms of decomposition appear...

Every openly expressed thought, no matter how false, every clearly conveyed fantasy, no matter how absurd, cannot fail to find sympathy in some soul.

L.N. Tolstoy

The era of palace coups is a period in Russian history from 1725 to 1762. This name came into use at the suggestion of Professor V. Klyuchevsky, who with this term designated an entire era, which accounted for 5 coups d'etat. Today we will look at palace coups in Russia from the point of view of domestic historiography, and also study this issue from various points of view, which is important for understanding the essence of the events.

Reasons and background

Let's start with the main thing. Why did the era of palace coups become possible in principle? After all, before it there were more than 25 years of stability under the rule of Peter 1: the country developed, grew stronger, and gained authority. Why did everything collapse and chaos begin with his death? There are several reasons for this, but main reason palace coups were organized by Peter himself. We are talking about the decree on succession to the throne of 1722 (the monarch has the right to appoint any successor) and the murder of Tsarevich Alexei. As a result, there is no male heir, the order of succession to the throne has been changed, and no will has been left. Chaos began. This was the prerequisite for subsequent events.

These are the main reasons for the era of palace coups. To perceive them you need to understand that long years stability in Russia rested on the firm hand and will of Peter 1. He was the main one in the country. He stood above everyone. Simply put, the state was stronger than the elite. After the death of Peter, it turned out that there was no successor, and the elite was already becoming stronger than the state. This always leads to coups and problems within the country. Moreover, further events showed that the elite fought for their position and expanded their privileges with each new ruler. The nobility was finally approved by the elite with the Manifesto on the Freedom of the Nobility and the Charter of Grant. Largely because of this, problems arose in the future for people like, say, Paul 1, who tried to return the leading role of the state over the nobles.

The political forces that became the main ones in organizing coups were the nobles and the guard. They were competently manipulated by various lobbying groups that promoted their ruler, because because of new system succession to the throne, anyone could sit on the throne. It is clear that Peter’s closest relatives were selected for this role, but in general, any of these relatives had the right to the throne. And behind each of them there were their own groups.

The Guard and its role

The palace coups of the 18th century were actually revolutions, when armed people removed one ruler and replaced him with another. Accordingly, a political force capable of doing this was needed. This became the guard, which was mainly recruited from nobles. The role of the guard in the change of supreme power in Russia in 1725-1762 cannot be overestimated. It was these people with weapons in their hands who “made destinies.”

The strengthening of the role of the guard is associated with the strengthening of the positions of the nobility. The Guard was mainly formed from nobles, therefore it was the guards who took the most direct part in the coups, pursuing exclusively noble interests.

Domestic politics of the era

Russia's domestic policy in the second quarter of the 18th century is characterized in two directions:

1. Strengthening the role of the nobility.
2. Strengthening serfdom.

The main direction of domestic policy in the era of palace coups is the strengthening of the nobility and its positions. The strengthening of serfdom for the elite was also important point, but strengthening your rights is much more important. It was by the 60s - 70s of the 18th century that the dominance of the elite over the state was finally formed. And this had far-reaching consequences. As a result, the murder of Paul 1 occurred, who tried to return the dominant role to the state, and in many ways the Patriotic War of 1812 began. After all, Russia’s violation of the continental blockade took place precisely under the slogans that the elite and the state were losing money.

The domestic politics of Russia during this period is very interesting, especially when compared with the events of the 90s, after the collapse of the USSR. Below I will give the main events of the era of palace coups, as a result of which the nobility received more and more privileges. You can compare them with how our current elite was formed. The expansion of the rights of the nobility in the second quarter of the 18th century took place through the following events:

• They began to distribute land and peasants to the nobles (Peter 1 forbade this). Subsequently, the monopoly right of the nobility over the peasants was recognized.
• After 1731, all the estates of the nobles became their full personal property.
• Special guards regiments were created for nobles.
• Nobles could be enrolled in the guards regiments from birth. Conventionally, a young man joins the guard at the age of 15, and he has already had 15 years of service.
• Limiting the service life of nobles in the army to 25 years. The term was limited to only nobles from all classes.
• Most state-owned factories were transferred to the hands of the nobles.
• Distillation became a monopoly of the nobility.
• Creation of a noble bank.

The list can be continued, but I think the essence is clear. For 37 years, an elite was formed in Russia, whose interests were higher than the interests of the state. Therefore, this time is also often called turmoil.

Governance of the country

Palace coups are an era when the person sitting on the throne was only nominally the head of state. In reality, the country was ruled by favorites and the groups led by them. The favorites created governing bodies of the country, which most often obeyed only them (on paper, the emperor). Therefore, below is a detailed table that presents the governing bodies of Russia in the second quarter of the 18th century.

Table: Rulers of the era of palace coups and their favorites

Ruler	Favorite (assistants, regents)	Supreme governing body	Authority
Catherine 1 (1725-1727)	HELL. Menshikov	Supreme Privy Council (chicks of Peter's nest)	Secret council dominates the country
Peter 2 (1727-1730)	HELL. Menshikov, A.I. Osterman, I.A. Dolgorukov	Supreme Privy Council (the aristocracy strengthened in it: the Dolgorukies, the Golitsyns and others).	Secrets of the council are relegated to the background. The emperor has power.
Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740)	E.I. Biron	Cabinet of Ministers. Secret Chancellery "word and deed"
Ivan Antonovich (1740-1741)	E.I. Biron, A.I. Osterman, Anna Leopoldovna (regent)	Cabinet of Ministers	The signatures of members of the Cabinet of Ministers are equal to the signature of the emperor
Elizaveta Petrovna (1741-1761)	A.G. Razumovsky, I.I. Shuvalov	Senate, Secret Chancery	The powers of the Senate and the Chief Magistrate have been expanded.
Peter 3 (1761-1762)	D.V. Volkov, A.I. Glebov, M.I. Vorontsov	Advice	The Council subordinated the Senate

A separate question on this topic is why the daughters of Peter 1 did not have preferential rights in comparison with other heirs? Again, everything depends on the decree of succession to the throne, where each monarch himself appoints a successor: this could be a son, daughter, wife, a stranger, even a simple peasant. Anyone can lay claim to the throne, so the daughters of the first Russian emperor were in the same position as everyone else.

Brief essence of government

Let us briefly consider the essence of the reign of the emperors who were in power in Russia during the period of palace coups:

• Catherine 1 (wife of Peter 1). In 1725, Peter 2 was to become ruler. The palace where the decision was made was besieged by the guards of the Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments by order of Menshikov. The first coup happened. Catherine had no relation to state affairs.
• Peter 2 (grandson of Peter 1). Already in 1727, he sent Menshikov into exile. The rise of the old nobility began. The Dolgorukys' positions were strengthened to the maximum. Many parties began to form that actively advocated limiting the monarchy.
• Anna Ioannovna (daughter of Ivan 5, brother of Peter 1). She came to the throne after the story with the “conditions”. The time of her reign was remembered for constant fun, carnivals, balls and the like. Suffice it to recall the ice palace.
• Ivan Antonovich (grandson of Ivan 5). Real power was in the hands of Biron (a continuation of the Bironism). Very soon a new conspiracy matured, and the guards came out in favor of changing the ruler.
• Elizaveta Petrovna (daughter of Peter 1). She had little interest in ruling the country. They really ruled through their favorites.
• Peter 3 (grandson of Peter 1 on the female side). A frankly weak ruler who should not be in power. He ended up there only thanks to another elite conspiracy. Peter 3 groveled before Prussia. Therefore, Elizabeth did not appoint him as successor.

Consequences of the era

Palace coups were important in the 18th and 19th centuries of our history. In many ways, it was in those times that the social dynamite that exploded in 1917 was laid. If we talk in general about the consequences of the era of palace coups, they generally boil down to the following:

1. A strong blow has been dealt to Russian identity.
2. Separation of church and state. In fact, the ideas of Orthodoxy were completely abandoned at the state level.
3. The all-class nature of the state was destroyed as a result of the formation of the elite - the nobility.
4. Economic disruption of the country. For the carnival era of coups in 37 years, the country paid for more than a century!

This time led to the massive dominance of Russia by foreigners, primarily Germans. The peak of this process occurred during the reign of Anna Ioannovna. Many leading positions were occupied by Germans and they acted not in the interests of Russia, but in their own personal interests. As a result, these 37 years have been a terrible rampant of corruption, embezzlement, bribery, anarchy and power model states.

The era of palace coups

The era of palace coups is considered to be the time from 1725 to 1862 - approximately 37 years. In 1725, Peter I died without transferring the throne to anyone, after which a struggle for power began, which was marked by a number of palace coups.

The author of the term “palace coups” is a historian IN. Klyuchevsky. He outlined another time period for this phenomenon in Russian history: 1725-1801, since in 1801 the last palace coup in the Russian Empire took place, ending with the death of Paul I and the accession of Alexander I Pavlovich.

To understand the reason for the series of palace coups in the 18th century, one should return to the era of Peter I, or more precisely, to 1722, when he issued the Decree on Succession to the Throne. The decree abolished the custom of transferring the royal throne to direct descendants in the male line and provided for the appointment of an heir to the throne at the will of the monarch. Peter I issued a Decree on Succession to the Throne due to the fact that his son, Tsarevich Alexei, was not a supporter of the reforms he was carrying out and grouped the opposition around himself. After the death of Alexei in 1718, Peter I did not intend to transfer power to his grandson Peter Alekseevich, fearing for the future of the reforms he was carrying out, but he himself did not have time to appoint a successor.

N. Ge "Peter I interrogates Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich in Peterhof"

After his death, his widow was proclaimed empress Catherine I, which relied on one of the court groups.

Catherine I occupied the Russian throne for just over two years; she left a will: she appointed Grand Duke Peter Alekseevich as her successor and outlined in detail the order of succession to the throne, and all copies of the Decree on Succession to the Throne under Peter II Alekseevich were confiscated.

But Peter II died, also without leaving a will or an heir, and then the Supreme Privy Council (created in February 1726 with members: Field Marshal General His Serene Highness Prince Alexander Danilovich Menshikov, Admiral General Count Fyodor Matveevich Apraksin, State Chancellor Count Gavriil Ivanovich Golovkin, Count Peter Andreevich Tolstoy, Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Golitsyn, Baron Andrei Ivanovich Osterman, and then Duke Karl Friedrich of Holstein - as we see, almost all the “chicks of Petrov’s nest”) were elected empress Anna Ioannovna.

Before her death she designated a successor Ioann Antonovich, also detailing the further line of succession.

Overthrown Joan Elizaveta Petrovna relied on the will of Catherine I to justify her rights to the throne.

A few years later, her nephew Pyotr Fedorovich ( Peter III), after his accession to the throne his son became heir PaulI Petrovich.

But soon after this, as a result of a coup, power passed to the wife of Peter III Catherine II, which referred to “the will of all subjects,” while Paul remained the heir, although Catherine, according to some data, considered the option of depriving him of the right to inherit.

Having ascended the throne, in 1797, Paul I, on the day of his coronation, published the Manifesto on the succession to the throne, compiled by him and his wife Maria Fedorovna during Catherine’s lifetime. According to this manifesto, which repealed Peter’s decree, “the heir was determined by the law itself” - Paul’s intention was to eliminate in the future the situation of removing legitimate heirs from the throne and eliminating arbitrariness.

But the new principles of succession to the throne were not accepted for a long time not only by the nobility, but even by members imperial family: after the murder of Paul in 1801, his widow Maria Feodorovna, who together with him drew up the Manifesto on the Succession to the Throne, cried out: “I want to reign!” Alexander I’s manifesto on accession to the throne also contained Peter’s wording: “and his imperial majesty to the heir, who will be appointed", despite the fact that according to the law, Alexander’s heir was his brother Konstantin Pavlovich, who secretly renounced this right, which also contradicted the Manifesto of Paul I.

The Russian succession to the throne stabilized only after the accession to the throne of Nicholas I. Here is such a long preamble. And now, in order. So, CatherineI, PeterII, Anna Ioannovna, Ioann Antonovich, Elizaveta Petrovna, PeterIII, CatherineII, PavelI…

CatherineI

Catherine I. Portrait of an unknown artist

PeterII Alekseevich

Emperor of All Russia, son of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich and Princess Charlotte Sophia of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, grandson of Peter I and Evdokia Lopukhina. Born on October 12, 1715. He lost his mother at the age of 10 days, and his father fled to Vienna with his teacher N. Vyazemsky’s serf, Efrosinya Feodorovna. Peter I returned his rebellious son, forced him to renounce his right to the throne and sentenced him to death. There is a version that Alexey Petrovich was strangled in the Peter and Paul Fortress without waiting for its execution.

Peter I did not care about his grandson, since he assumed in him, like his son, an opponent of reforms, an adherent of the old Moscow way of life. Little Peter was taught not just “something and somehow,” but just anyone, so he received virtually no education by the time he ascended the throne.

I. Wedekind "Portrait of Peter II"

But Menshikov had his own plans: he convinced Catherine I to name Peter as heir in her will, and after her death he ascended the throne. Menshikov betrothed him to his daughter Maria (Peter was only 12 years old), moved him into his house and actually began to govern the state himself, regardless of the opinion of the Supreme Privy Council. Baron A. Osterman, as well as Academician Goldbach and Archbishop F. Prokopovich, were appointed to train the young emperor. Osterman was a clever diplomat and a talented teacher, he captivated Peter with his witty lessons, but at the same time turned him against Menshikov (a struggle for power in another version! Osterman “bet” on Dolgoruky: a foreigner in Russia, albeit crowned with the glory of a skilled diplomat, can carry out its policy only in close alliance with the Russians). It all ended with Peter II removing Menshikov from power, taking advantage of his illness, depriving him of his ranks and fortune, and exiling him and his family first to the Ryazan province, and then to Berezov, Tobolsk province.

So, the powerful Menshikov fell, but the struggle for power continued - now, as a result of intrigues, the Dolgoruky princes gain primacy, who draw Peter into a wild life, carousing, and, having learned about his passion for hunting, take him away from the capital for many weeks.

On February 24, 1728, the coronation of Peter II takes place, but he remains far from state affairs. The Dolgorukys betrothed him to Princess Ekaterina Dolgoruky, the wedding was scheduled for January 19, 1730, but he caught a cold, contracted smallpox and died on the morning of the proposed wedding, he was only 15 years old. This is how the Romanov family in the male line was extinguished.

What can be said about the personality of Peter II? Let's listen to the historian N. Kostomarov: “Peter II did not reach the age when a person’s personality is determined. Although his contemporaries praised his abilities, natural intelligence and kind heart, these were only hopes for good things in the future. His behavior did not give the right to expect him to become a good ruler of the state over time. He not only did not like teaching and work, but hated both; nothing fascinated him in the state sphere; he was completely absorbed in fun, being constantly under someone’s influence.”

During his reign, power was mainly vested in the Supreme Privy Council.

Board results: decrees on streamlining the collection of poll taxes from the population (1727); restoration of the hetman's power in Little Russia; The Bill of Exchange Charter was promulgated; A trade agreement with China has been ratified.

Anna Ioannovna

L. Caravaque "Portrait of Anna Ioannovna"

After the premature death of Peter II, the issue of succession to the throne again becomes on the agenda. There was an attempt to enthronement the bride of Peter II, Catherine Dolgorukaya, but it was unsuccessful. Then the Golitsyns, rivals of the Dolgorukys, nominated their contender - the niece of Peter I, Anna of Courland. But Anna came to power by signing the conditions. What are these “conditions” (conditions) of Anna Ioannovna?

This is an act that was drawn up by members of the Supreme Privy Council and which Anna Ioannovna had to fulfill: not to enter into marriage, not to appoint an heir, not to have the right to declare war and make peace, to introduce new taxes, to reward and punish subordinate senior officials. The main author of the conditions was Dmitry Golitsyn, but the document, drawn up immediately after the death of Peter II, was read only on February 2, 1730, so the bulk of the nobility could only guess about its contents and be content with rumors and assumptions. When the standards were made public, a split emerged among the nobility. Anna signed the conditions proposed to her on January 25, but when she arrived in Moscow, she accepted a deputation of opposition nobles who were concerned about the strengthening of the power of the Supreme Privy Council, and with the help of officers of the guard regiments, on February 28, 1730, she swore in the nobility as Russian autocrat, and also publicly refused from the conditions. On March 4, she abolishes the Supreme Privy Council, and on April 28, she is solemnly crowned and appoints her favorite E. Biron as chief chamberlain. The era of Bironovism begins.

A few words about the personality of Anna Ioannovna.

She was born on January 28, 1693, the fourth daughter of Tsar Ivan V (brother and co-ruler of Peter I) and Tsarina Praskovya Fedorovna Saltykova, granddaughter of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. She was brought up in an extremely unfavorable environment: her father was a weak-minded man, and she did not get along with her mother from early childhood. Anna was arrogant and not of high intelligence. Her teachers could not even teach the girl to write correctly, but she achieved “bodily well-being.” Peter I, guided by political interests, married his niece to the Duke of Courland, Friedrich Wilhelm, nephew of the Prussian king. Their marriage took place on October 31, 1710 in St. Petersburg, in the palace of Prince Menshikov, and after that the couple spent a long time at feasts in the capital of Russia. But, barely leaving St. Petersburg for his possessions at the beginning of 1711, Friedrich Wilhelm died on the way to Mitava - as they suspected, due to immoderate excesses. So, without having time to be a wife, Anna becomes a widow and moves to her mother in the village of Izmailovo near Moscow, and then to St. Petersburg. But in 1716, by order of Peter I, she left for permanent residence in Courland.

And now she is the All-Russian Empress. Her reign, according to the historian V. Klyuchevsky, “is one of the darkest pages of our empire, and the darkest spot on it is the empress herself. Tall and corpulent, with a face more masculine than feminine, callous by nature and even more hardened by early widowhood amid diplomatic intrigues and court adventures in Courland, she brought to Moscow an angry and poorly educated mind with a fierce thirst for belated pleasures and entertainment.” Her courtyard was drowned in luxury and bad taste and was filled with crowds of jesters, firecrackers, buffoons, storytellers... Lazhechnikov talks about her “fun” in the book “Ice House”. She loved horse riding and hunting; in Peterhof, in her room, she always had loaded guns ready to shoot from the window at flying birds, and in the Winter Palace they specially built an arena for her, where they drove wild animals that she shot.

She was completely unprepared to rule the state, and moreover, she did not have the slightest desire to rule it. But she surrounded herself with foreigners completely dependent on her, who, according to V. Klyuchevsky, “fell into Russia like cheese from a holey bag, stuck around the courtyard, settled around the throne, and climbed into all the lucrative positions in management.”

Portrait of E. Biron. Unknown artist

All affairs under Anna Ioannovna were managed by her favorite E. Biron. The cabinet of ministers created by Osterman was subordinate to him. The army was commanded by Minich and Lassi, and the court was commanded by the bribe-taker and passionate gambler Count Levenvold. In April 1731, a secret search office (torture chamber) began its work, supporting the authorities with denunciations and torture.

Board results: the position of the nobility was significantly eased - they were assigned the exclusive right to own peasants; Military service lasted 25 years, and by a manifesto of 1736, one of the sons, at the request of his father, was allowed to stay at home to run the household and train him with a view to suitability for civil service.

In 1731 the law on single inheritance was repealed.

In 1732, the first cadet corps was opened to educate nobles.

The subjugation of Poland continued: the Russian army under the command of Minich took Danzig, losing more than 8 thousand of our soldiers.

In 1736-1740 there was a war with Turkey. The reason for it was the constant raids of the Crimean Tatars. As a result of the campaigns of Lassi, who took Azov in 1739, and Minikh, who captured Perekop and Ochakov in 1736, and won a victory at Stauci in 1739, after which Moldova accepted Russian citizenship, the Peace of Belgrade was concluded. As a result of all these military operations, Russia lost about 100 thousand people, but still did not have the right to maintain a navy in the Black Sea, and could only use Turkish ships for trade.

To maintain the royal court in luxury, it was necessary to introduce milking raids and extortion expeditions. Many representatives of ancient noble families were executed or sent into exile: the Dolgorukovs, Golitsyns, Yusupovs and others. Chancellor A.P. Volynsky, together with like-minded people, in 1739 compiled a “Project on the improvement of state affairs,” which contained demands for the protection of the Russian nobility from the dominance of foreigners. According to Volynsky, the board in Russian Empire should be monarchical with the wide participation of the nobility as the leading class in the state. The next government authority after the monarch should be the Senate (as it was under Peter the Great); then comes the lower government, made up of representatives of the lower and middle nobility. Estates: spiritual, urban and peasant - received, according to Volynsky’s project, significant privileges and rights. Literacy was required from everyone, and from the clergy and nobility a broader education, the breeding grounds of which were to be academies and universities. Many reforms were also proposed to improve justice, finance, trade, etc. For this they paid with execution. Moreover, Volynsky was sentenced to a very cruel execution: impaled alive, having first cut out his tongue; quarter his associates and then cut off their heads; confiscate the estate and send Volynsky’s two daughters and son into eternal exile. But then the sentence was commuted: three were beheaded, and the rest were exiled.

Shortly before her death, Anna Ioannovna learned that her niece Anna Leopoldovna had a son, and declared the two-month-old baby Ivan Antonovich heir to the throne, and before he came of age, she appointed E. Biron as regent, who received “the power and authority to manage all state affairs as internal, and foreign ones."

IvanVI Antonovich: Biron’s regency – Minich’s coup

Ivan VI Antonovich and Anna Leopoldovna

Biron's regency lasted about three weeks. Having received the right to regency, Biron continues to fight with Minich, and in addition, spoils relations with both Anna Leopoldovna and her husband Anton Ulrich. On the night of November 7–8, 1740, another palace coup took place, organized by Minich. Biron was arrested and sent into exile in the Tobolsk province, and the regency passed to Anna Leopoldovna. She recognized herself as a ruler, but did not take actual participation in state affairs. According to contemporaries, “... she was not stupid, but she had an aversion to any serious activity.” Anna Leopoldovna constantly quarreled and did not speak for weeks with her husband, who, in her opinion, “had a kind heart, but no intelligence.” And disagreements between spouses naturally created conditions for court intrigues in the struggle for power. Taking advantage of Anna Leopoldovna's carelessness and the dissatisfaction of Russian society with the continued German dominance, Elizaveta Petrovna comes into play. With the help of the guardsmen of the Preobrazhensky Regiment loyal to her, she arrested Anna Leopoldovna along with her family and decided to send them abroad. But the chamberlain A. Turchaninov made an attempt to carry out a counter-coup in favor of Ivan VI, and then Elizaveta Petrovna changed her decision: she took Anna Leopoldovna’s entire family under arrest and sent him to Ranenburg (near Ryazan). In 1744, they were taken to Kholmogory, and on the orders of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, Ivan VI was isolated from his family and 12 years later secretly transported to Shlisselburg, where he was kept in solitary confinement under the name of a “famous prisoner.”

In 1762, Peter III secretly examined the former emperor. He disguised himself as an officer and entered the casemates where the prince was kept. He saw “a rather tolerable dwelling and sparsely equipped with the poorest furniture. The prince's clothes were also very poor. He was completely clueless and spoke incoherently. Either he claimed that he was Emperor John, or he insisted that the emperor was no longer in the world, and his spirit had passed into him...”

Under Catherine II, his guards were instructed to persuade the prince to become a monk, but in case of danger, “kill the prisoner, and not hand over the living one into the hands of anyone.” Lieutenant V. Mirovich, who learned the secret of the secret prisoner, tried to free Ivan Antonovich and proclaim him emperor. But the guards followed the instructions. The body of Ivan VI was exhibited for a week in the Shlisselburg fortress “for the news and worship of the people,” and then buried in Tikhvin in the Bogoroditsky Monastery.

Anna Leopoldovna died in 1747 from patrimonial fever, and Catherine II allowed Anton Ulrich to leave for his homeland, since he did not pose a danger to her, not being a member of the Romanov dynasty. But he refused the offer and stayed with the children in Kholmogory. But their fate is sad: Catherine II, after consolidating the dynasty with the birth of two grandchildren, allowed Anna Leopoldovna’s children to move in with her aunt, the Dowager Queen of Denmark and Norway. But, as N. Eidelman writes, “ironically, they lived at home - in prison, and then abroad - in freedom. But they yearned for that prison in their homeland, not knowing any language other than Russian.”

Empress Elizaveta Petrovna

S. van Loo "Portrait of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna"

PeterIII Fedorovich

A.K. Pfanzelt "Portrait of Peter III"

Read about it on our website: .

CatherineII Alekseevna the Great

A. Antropov "Catherine II the Great"

Empress of All Russia. Before the adoption of Orthodoxy - Princess Sophia Frederica Augusta. She was born in Stettin, where her father, Christian August, Duke of Anhalt-Zerbst-Bernburg, served as a major general at that time. Prussian army. Her mother, Johanna Elisabeth, for some reason did not like the girl, so Sofia (Fike, as her family called her) lived in Hamburg with her grandmother from early childhood. She received a mediocre upbringing because... The family was constantly in need; its teachers were random people. The girl did not stand out for any talents, except for a penchant for command and boyish games. Fike was secretive and calculating from childhood. By a happy coincidence, during a trip to Russia in 1744, at the invitation of Elizaveta Petrovna, she became the bride of the future Russian Tsar Peter III Fedorovich.

Catherine already in 1756 was planning her future seizure of power. During the serious and prolonged illness of Elizabeth Petrovna, the Grand Duchess made it clear to her “English comrade” H. Williams that he had to wait only for the death of the Empress. But Elizaveta Petrovna died only in 1761, and her legal heir, Peter III, the husband of Catherine II, ascended the throne.

Teachers of the Russian language and the Law of God were assigned to the princess; she showed enviable persistence in learning in order to prove her love for a foreign country and adapt to a new life. But the first years of her life in Russia were very difficult, and she also experienced neglect from her husband and courtiers. But the desire to become a Russian empress outweighed the bitterness of the trials. She adapted to the tastes of the Russian court, only one thing was missing - an heir. And this is exactly what was expected of her. After two unsuccessful pregnancies, she finally gave birth to a son, the future Emperor Paul I. But by order of Elizabeth Petrovna, he was immediately separated from his mother, showing him for the first time only 40 days later. Elizaveta Petrovna raised her grandson herself, and Ekaterina began to educate herself: she read a lot, and not only novels - her interests included historians and philosophers: Tacitus, Montesquieu, Voltaire, etc. Thanks to her hard work and perseverance, she was able to achieve respect for herself, with her not only famous Russian politicians, but also foreign ambassadors began to count. In 1761, her husband, Peter III, ascended the throne, but he was unpopular in society, and then Catherine, with the help of the guards of the Izmailovsky, Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments, overthrew her husband from the throne in 1762. She also stopped attempts to appoint her regent for her son Paul , which N. Panin and E. Dashkova sought, and got rid of Ivan VI. Read more about the reign of Catherine II on our website:

Having become known as an enlightened queen, Catherine II was unable to achieve love and understanding from her own son. In 1794, despite the opposition of the courtiers, she decided to remove Paul from the throne in favor of her beloved grandson Alexander. But sudden death in 1796 prevented her from achieving what she wanted.

All-Russian Emperor PavelI Petrovich

S. Shchukin "Portrait of Emperor Paul I"

Introduction

1. Palace coups of the 18th century

1.1 First revolutions. Naryshkins and Miloslavskys

1.3 "Plan of the Supreme Leaders"

1.4 The rise and fall of Biron

1.6 Coup of Catherine II

Conclusion

Introduction

The era of palace coups is how the time from the death of Peter I in 1725 to the accession to the throne of Catherine II in 1762 is usually called in Russian historiography. From 1725 to 1761, the widow of Peter Catherine I (1725-1727), his grandson Peter II (1727-1730), his niece Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740) and her sister’s grandson infant Ivan Antonovich (1740) visited the Russian throne -1741), his daughter Elizaveta Petrovna (1741 - 1761). This list is completed by the successor of Elizabeth Petrovna, the paternal grandson of the Swedish King Charles XII and the maternal grandson of Peter I, Duke of Holstein Peter III. “These people had neither the strength nor the desire to continue or destroy Peter’s work; they could only spoil it” (V.O. Klyuchevsky).

What was the essence of the era of palace coups? Historians pay attention to two important circumstances. On the one hand, this was a reaction to the turbulent reign of Peter I and his grandiose transformations. On the other hand, the post-Petrine era formed a new nobility and palace coups of the 18th century. carried out by the noble aristocracy in the interests of their class. Their result was the growth of noble privileges and increased exploitation of peasants. Under these conditions, individual attempts by the government to soften the serfdom could not succeed, and thus palace coups, strengthening serfdom, contributed to the crisis of feudalism.

The purpose of this work: to highlight all the palace coups of the 18th century and identify their causes, as well as to evaluate the transformations of Catherine II in the era of “enlightened absolutism”.

This work consists of an introduction, 3 chapters, a conclusion and a list of references. The total volume of work is 20 pages.

1. Palace coups of the 18th century 1.1 The first coups. Naryshkins and Miloslavskys

The first revolutions took place already at the end of the 17th century, when, after the death of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich in 1682, supporters and relatives of Tsarina Natalya Kirillovna achieved the election of the youngest of his brothers, Pyotr Alekseevich, to the throne, bypassing the elder Ivan. Essentially, this was the first palace coup that took place peacefully. But two weeks later, Moscow was shocked by the Streltsy riot, most likely initiated by Tsarevich Ivan’s maternal relatives - the Miloslavskys. After the bloody reprisals against the participants in the first coup, both Ivan and Peter were proclaimed kings, and real power was in their hands older sister Princess Sophia. It is significant that this time, to achieve their goals, the conspirators used military force - the Streltsy, who were the police support of power. However, Sophia could formally rule only as long as her brothers remained children. According to some reports, the princess was preparing a new coup, intending to proclaim herself an autocratic queen. But in 1689, taking advantage of a rumor about the archers' campaign against Preobrazhenskoye, Peter fled to the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and soon gathered significant forces there. The core of them were his amusing regiments, which later became the basis of the regular army, its guard, which played an important role in almost all subsequent palace coups. The open confrontation between sister and brother ended with Sophia's arrest and exile to a monastery.

1.2 Coups after the death of Peter the Great. Menshikov and Dolgoruky

Peter the Great died in 1725 without leaving an heir and without having time to implement his decree of 1722, according to which the tsar had the right to appoint a successor for himself. Among those who could lay claim to the throne at that time were the grandson of Peter I - the young Tsarevich Pyotr Alekseevich, the wife of the late Tsar - Ekaterina Alekseevna and their daughters - the Tsarevnas Anna and Elizabeth. It is believed that Peter I was going to leave the throne to Anna, but then changed his mind and therefore crowned (for the first time in Russian history) his wife Catherine. However, shortly before the death of the king, the relationship between the spouses deteriorated sharply. Each of the contenders had their own supporters.

Companions of Peter, new nobles A.D. Menshikov, F.M. Apraksin, P.A. Tolstoy, F. Prokopovich advocated the transfer of the throne to the wife of the late emperor - Catherine (Martha Skavronskaya), nobles from the old boyar families D.M. Golitsyn, Dolgoruky, Saltykov, who were hostile to the “new upstarts,” proposed making Peter’s grandson tsar. A.D., who supported Catherine, turned out to be the fastest. Menshikov. The debate was interrupted by the appearance of guard regiments. Having configured the guards regiments accordingly, he lined them up under the windows of the palace and thus achieved the proclamation of the queen as an autocratic empress. This was not a pure palace coup, since it was not about a change of power, but about a choice among contenders for the throne, but the very way the issue was resolved anticipated subsequent events.

During her reign, the government was headed by people who had emerged under Peter, primarily Menshikov. However, the old nobility also had great influence, especially the Golitsyns and Dolgorukys. The struggle between old and new nobles led to a compromise: by decree on February 8, 1726, the Supreme Privy Council of six people was created, headed by Menshikov: D.M. Golitsyn, P.A. Tolstoy, F.M. Apraksin, G.I. Golovkin, A.I. Osterman and Duke Karl Friedrich, husband of Princess Anna Petrovna. The Council, as the new supreme body of power, pushed aside the Senate and began to decide the most important matters. The Empress did not interfere. The Menshikov government, relying on the nobles, expanded their privileges and allowed the creation of patrimonial manufactories and trade. The “supreme leaders” destroyed Peter’s system of local sectoral bodies - its maintenance was expensive, while the government sought to save money: the poll tax was not received in full, and the ruin of the peasants also affected the landowners’ economy. The poll tax was reduced, and the participation of troops in collecting it was cancelled. All power in the provinces was transferred to the governors, in the provinces and districts - to the governors. The administration began to cost the state less, but its arbitrariness intensified. There were plans to review other reforms as well.

On May 6, 1727, Catherine I died. According to her will, the throne passed to the grandson of Peter I, Tsarevich Peter - a tall, healthy 12-year-old boy. Wanting to become a regent, Menshikov betrothed his daughter to Peter II during Catherine’s lifetime. But now the “higher-ups” - Count A.I. - have come out against Menshikov. Osterman, teacher of Peter II, and the princes Dolgoruky. 17-year-old Ivan Dolgoruky was the favorite of Peter II, a friend of his amusements. In September 1727, Peter deprived Menshikov of all positions and exiled him to Berezov at the mouth of the Ob, where he died in 1729. The Dolgorukys decided to strengthen their influence on Peter by marrying him to the sister of Ivan Dolgoruky. The court and the college moved to Moscow, where the wedding was being prepared. But in the midst of preparations, on January 18, 1730, Peter II died of smallpox. The male line of the Romanov dynasty ceased.

The guard did not participate in the next coup, and Menshikov himself became its victim. This happened already in 1728, during the reign of Peter II. The temporary worker, who concentrated all power in his hands and completely controlled the young tsar, suddenly fell ill, and while he was ill, his political opponents, princes Dolgoruky and A.I.

Osterman managed to gain influence on the tsar and get from him a decree, first on the resignation, and then on the exile of Menshikov to Siberia. This was a new palace coup, because as a result, power in the country passed to another political force.

1.3 "Plan of the Supreme Leaders"

According to the will of Catherine I, in the event of the death of Peter II, the throne passed to one of her daughters. But the “higher-ups” did not want to lose power. At the suggestion of D.M. Golitsyn, they decided to elect Anna Ioannovna to the throne - the widow of the Duke of Courland, the daughter of Peter I's brother Tsar Ivan, as a representative of the senior line of the House of Romanov. In the conditions of the dynastic crisis, members of the Supreme Privy Council attempted to limit autocracy in Russia and forced Anna Ioannovna, whom they had elected to the throne, to sign “conditions.” Since the leaders kept their plans secret, their whole idea had the character of a real conspiracy, and if their plan had been successful, it would have meant a change in the political system of Russia. But this did not happen, but decisive role again played by the guards officers, whom the supporters of the autocracy managed to bring into the palace in time. At the right moment, they so decisively declared their commitment to traditional forms of government that everyone else had no choice but to join them.

Before arriving in Russia, Anna Ioannovna signed “conditions” that limited her power: not to rule without the consent of the “sovereigns”, not to execute the nobility without trial, not to take away or grant estates without the sanction of the “supremes”, not to get married, not to appoint a successor, his favorite E.I. Biron should not be brought to Russia. Anna Ioannovna made sure that the secret “conditions” became known to everyone. The nobility rebelled against the "sovereigns". At the coronation on February 25, 1730, Anna broke her “conditions”, stepped on them and proclaimed herself a colonel of the Preobrazhensky Regiment and autocrat. On March 4, 1730, she abolished the Supreme Privy Council, exiled and executed Dolgoruky, D.M. Golitsyn was imprisoned, where he died. The Senate resumed its activities on October 18, 1731. the Cabinet of Ministers and the Office of Secret Investigation Cases were established, headed by A.I. Ushakov - secret political police, who terrified with torture and executions. The Cabinet of Ministers had such power that since 1735 the signatures of all three cabinet ministers could replace the signature of Anna herself. Thus, the Cabinet legally became the supreme institution of the state. Anna surrounded herself with Courland nobles led by E.I. Biron, who was soon elected Duke of Courland, spent her time in entertainment, horse riding, and hunting. Anna made new concessions to the Russian nobles. On December 9, 1730, Peter the Great's decree on single inheritance was canceled. In 1736, the service of nobles ceased to be unlimited, it was limited to 25 years (from 20 to 45 years). One of the noble sons could stay at home and manage the household. For the children of nobles in St. Petersburg, the Land Noble Corps (cadet corps) was founded, where officers were trained. But the Russian nobles were dissatisfied with the dominance of foreigners who occupied all important posts. In 1738 Cabinet Minister A.P. Volynsky and his supporters tried to speak out against the “Bironovism”, but were arrested. In 1740, Volynsky and two of his comrades were executed after torture, the rest had their tongues cut out and sent to hard labor.

Having no heirs, Anna summoned her niece to Russia - the daughter of Catherine’s elder sister Anna (Elizabeth) Leopoldovna with her husband, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg Anton-Ulrich and their son, three-month-old baby Ivan. On October 17, 1740, Anna Ioannovna died, and the child was proclaimed emperor Ivan VI, and Biron, according to Anna’s will, as regent. Biron's regency caused general discontent, even among the German relatives of Ivan VI.

1.4 The rise and fall of Biron

Unpopular and without support in any layer of society, the duke behaved arrogantly, defiantly, and soon quarreled even with the parents of the infant emperor. Meanwhile, the prospect of waiting for Ivan Antonovich to come of age under the rule of Biron did not attract anyone, least of all the guards, whose idol was the daughter of Peter I, Tsarevna Elizaveta Petrovna. Field Marshal B.K. took advantage of these sentiments. Minikh, for whom Biron was an obstacle to the heights of power. On the night of November 9, 1740, a detachment of 80 guards led by Minikh broke into the Summer Palace and, encountering almost no resistance, arrested Biron. Probably, many of the participants in the coup thought that Elizabeth would now become the empress, but this was not part of Minich’s plans and Ivan Antonovich’s mother Anna Leopoldovna was declared the ruler, and his father, Prince Anton Ulrich of Brunswick, received the rank of generalissimo and commander-in-chief of the Russian army. The latter turned out to be unexpected for Minich, who expected to become a generalissimo himself. In a fit of resentment, he resigned and soon received it. But this was the ruler’s mistake, because now there was no one left in her circle who would have influence on the guard.

The rejoicing that gripped the St. Petersburg residents over the overthrow of Biron soon gave way to despondency: Anna Leopoldovna was a kind woman, but lazy and completely incapable of governing the state. Her inactivity demoralized the highest dignitaries, who did not know what decisions to make and preferred not to decide anything, so as not to make a fatal mistake. Meanwhile, the name of Elizabeth was still on everyone’s lips. For the guards and residents of St. Petersburg, she was, first of all, the daughter of Peter the Great, whose reign was remembered as a time of glorious military victories, grandiose transformations, and at the same time order and discipline. People from Anna Leopoldovna's entourage saw Elizabeth as a threat and demanded that her dangerous competitor be removed from St. Petersburg by marrying her off or simply sending her to a monastery. This danger, in turn, pushed Elizabeth into a conspiracy.

She was also not too power-hungry; more than anything in the world, she was attracted by clothes, balls and other entertainment, and it was precisely this way of life that she most feared of losing.

1.5 Peter's daughter comes to power

Elizabeth was pushed into the conspiracy by her own circle, which included foreigners pursuing their own interests. Thus, the crown princess Lestocq’s doctor brought her together with the French ambassador Marquis Chetardy, who was counting on Russia’s renunciation of the alliance with Austria and rapprochement with France if Elizabeth came to power. Changes in Russian foreign policy Swedish Ambassador Nolken also sought to achieve a revision of the terms of the Treaty of Nystadt in 1721, which secured Russia's possessions in the Baltic states. But Elizabeth had no intention of giving Sweden any land, and she didn’t really need foreigners either. On the contrary, it was the abundance of foreigners at court that was one of the factors that irritated both the guard and the residents of St. Petersburg.

A new coup was carried out by the guards regiments in favor of the daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth. The French ambassador took part in the conspiracy, hoping to benefit his country from this. On the night of November 25, 1741, Elizabeth, at the head of the grenadier company of the Preobrazhensky Regiment, arrested the Brunswick family and deposed Ivan Antonovich. Soon, crews of dignitaries awakened by the drummers flocked to the palace, hastening to express their loyal feelings to the new ruler of Russia. She herself forever remembered this night not only as the night of her triumph. From now on, she always imagined the ghost of a new revolution, she tried not to sleep at night and in all her palaces did not have a permanent bedroom, but ordered to make a bed in different chambers every night.

Those arrested were sent abroad, but were returned from the path, kept in exile in different cities, finally placed in Kholmogory, and when Ivan Antonovich grew up, he, as a contender for the throne, was imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress, ordering the commandant to kill the prisoner while trying to escape. When on July 4-5, 1764, a descendant of noble Cossacks, the son of the governor, Lieutenant Vasily Yakovlevich Mirovich, tried to free Ivan Antonovich, the commandant carried out the order.

During the reign of Elizabeth, Russia returned to the Petrine order: the Senate was restored and the Cabinet of Ministers was eliminated, magistrates resumed their activities, and the Secret Chancellery was preserved. In 1744 the death penalty was abolished. In development of Peter's reforms, other events were carried out in the spirit of “enlightened absolutism”, for which the Legislative Commission was formed in 1754. According to her projects, internal customs duties were abolished on April 1, 1754. By decree of 1754 "On the punishment of moneylenders" the maximum interest rate was limited to 6%. They formed the State Loan Bank, which consisted of the Bank for the Nobility and the Merchant Bank. The pro-noble nature of the reforms was especially reflected in the granting of a monopoly on distillation to the nobles in 1754. According to the new decree, nobles had to prove their origin. Decrees were being prepared on the secularization of church lands and the “liberty of the nobility.” Minich and Osterman were sent into exile. In contrast to the recent dominance of the Germans at court, the main government positions were now occupied by Russian nobles. Counts Pyotr Ivanovich Shuvalov and Alexey Petrovich Bestuzhev-Ryumin became outstanding statesmen. Great importance had favorites. The singer of the court choir, the Ukrainian peasant Alexei Grigorievich Rozum, became Count Razumovsky and field marshal. At the end of 1742, he and Elizabeth secretly got married in the church of the village of Perovo (now Moscow) near Moscow.

1.6 Coup of Catherine II

Elizaveta Petrovna took care of the successor in advance, already at the very beginning of her reign, announcing her nephew Pyotr Fedorovich as the successor. However, brought to Russia in early adolescence, this grandson of Peter the Great was never able to fall in love or get to know the country he was to rule. His impulsive character, love for everything Prussian and outright contempt for Russian national customs, along with the lack of the makings of a statesman, frightened the Russian nobles and deprived them of confidence in tomorrow- your own and the whole country.

In 1743, Elizabeth married him to the poor German princess Sophia-August-Frederike of Anhalt-Zerb, who after accepting Orthodoxy was called Ekaterina Alekseevna. When their son Pavel was born in 1754, Elizabeth took him into her care, isolating him from his parents so that he would grow up Russian in spirit. There is an assumption that Elizaveta Petrovna herself wanted to deprive the Grand Duke of his inheritance by declaring their son Pavel as her successor. On the other hand, some Russian nobles, in particular Chancellor A.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, began to think about elevating his wife to the throne instead of Peter. But Bestuzhev fell into disgrace and was exiled, and Elizabeth never decided to carry out her intentions. On December 25, 1761, when Elizabeth died, Peter III became emperor.

Peter's behavior on the throne justified the worst fears of the courtiers. He behaved like a child who had escaped from the supervision of adults; it seemed to him that, as an autocrat, he was allowed everything. Rumors spread throughout the capital, and throughout the country, about the tsar’s intentions to replace Orthodoxy with Protestantism, and the Russian guards with Holsteins. Society condemned the hasty conclusion of peace with Prussia, the ostentatious Prussophilia of the emperor and his plans to start a war with Denmark. And almost from the first days of his reign, a conspiracy began to mature around him, headed by his wife Catherine.

Peter III and Catherine had a difficult relationship and were unhappy in their marriage. Catherine became close to officer Grigory Grigorievich Orlov. Soon a circle of devoted people led by the Orlov brothers formed around her, in which by 1756 a conspiracy had matured to seize power and transfer the throne to Catherine. The conspiracy was fueled by rumors about the intention of the ill Elizabeth to leave the throne to Paul and send Catherine and her husband to Holstein. The conspiracy was supported by the British ambassador. After Peter III ascended the throne, the conspiracy continued to grow and deepen. The coup was scheduled for early July 1762. But the denouement came earlier, when Peter III, preparing for war with Denmark, ordered the guards to go to Finland. The guards were not informed about the purpose of the campaign; they decided that the conspiracy had been discovered and they wanted to remove her from the capital. Peter III actually found out about the conspiracy, Grigory Orlov was arrested. On June 29, Peter III tried to take refuge in Kronstadt, but the fortress did not accept him, greeting him with fire.

Meanwhile, on June 28 at 6 o’clock in the morning, Alexey Orlov appeared in Peterhof to Catherine and said that the conspiracy had been discovered. Catherine hurried to St. Petersburg to the barracks of the Izmailovsky regiment. Other guards joined her and proclaimed her autocrat. Pavel was also brought here. In the presence of nobles, Catherine was solemnly proclaimed empress and her son heir. From the cathedral she went to the Winter Palace, where members of the Senate and Synod took the oath.

Meanwhile, Peter III arrived with his retinue from Oranienbaum to Peterhof on the morning of June 28 and discovered the disappearance of his wife. Soon it became known about what happened in St. Petersburg. The emperor still had forces loyal to him and, had he shown determination, perhaps he would have been able to turn the tide of events. But Peter hesitated and only after much deliberation decided to try to land in Kronstadt. By this time, however, Admiral I.L., sent by Catherine, was already there. Talyzin and the emperor had to return to Peterhof, and then he had no choice but to sign his abdication. Peter III was captured and taken to the Ropsha manor (farm), 20 km from Oranienbaum, under the protection of Alexei Orlov and other officers. At dinner, the conspirators poisoned him and then strangled him in front of a servant who came running to the cry. The subjects were informed of the death of the emperor from a “hemorrhoidal attack.”

Having seized the throne, Catherine II continued Peter's policy of creating a strong absolutist state, claiming the role of an "enlightened monarch."

1.7 Failed plots against Catherine II

Thus began the 34-year reign of Catherine II. More than once during this time, especially in the first years, attempts were made at new coups (the most serious of them was the attempt by V.Ya. Mirovich in 1764 to free Ivan Antonovich from the Shlisselburg fortress), but they all failed in 1796, when Catherine died, on Emperor Paul I ascended the Russian throne.

In many character traits he resembled his father: he was also quick-tempered, impulsive, unpredictable, and despotic. Like 34 years earlier, courtiers, dignitaries and generals did not know what awaited them tomorrow: rapid rise or disgrace. The tsar’s passion for the military, his desire to impose Prussian order and discipline in the army caused sharp rejection among the military, and this time not only in the guard, but throughout the entire army. For example, an anti-government circle consisting of officers existed in Smolensk, but was discovered. When dissatisfaction with the tyrant Tsar became general, a new conspiracy against Paul matured in St. Petersburg. The conspirators enlisted the support of Grand Duke Alexander Pavlovich, apparently promising him that they would not cause physical harm to Paul and would only force him to sign an abdication of the throne. On the night of March 11, 1801, a group of officers, encountering almost no resistance, burst into the emperor’s chambers in the newly built Mikhailovsky Castle. They found Pavel, frightened to death, hiding behind a screen. A dispute ensued: they demanded that the emperor abdicate in favor of Alexander, but he refused. And then the excited conspirators attacked Paul. One of them hit him in the temple with a golden snuffbox, the other began to strangle him with a scarf. Soon it was all over.

2. The difference between a coup d'état and a palace coup

Some historians are inclined to view the uprising on Senate Square on December 14, 1825 as a coup attempt. Indeed, soldiers and officers of the regiments stationed in the capital, mainly guards, also took part in it. However, the leaders of the rebels sought not just to replace one autocrat with another, but to change the political system of Russia. And this is the fundamental difference. If what the Decembrists had planned had come true, it would, of course, have been the result of a coup, but not a palace coup, but a state coup. However, there is no clear boundary between these two concepts. And if the overthrow of Menshikov in 1728 was clearly a palace coup, then these events can also be considered state coups.

For a long time it was believed that the “era of palace coups” in Russia in the 18th century. was generated by the decree of Peter I of 1722, which allowed the autocrats to choose their own heir. However, this is not true. One of the reasons is that after the death of Peter II, there were no direct male heirs left in the royal family and different family members could claim the throne with equal rights. But what is much more important is that the coups were a kind of manifestation of public opinion and, even moreover, an indicator of the maturity of Russian society, which were a direct consequence of Peter the Great’s reforms at the beginning of the century. Thus, in 1741 there was widespread dissatisfaction with the inactivity of the government and the “dominance of foreigners”; in 1762 and 1801 the Russian people did not want to put up with tyrants on the throne. And although the direct executors of the conspiracies each time were the guards, they expressed the sentiments of a much wider segment of the population, because information about what was happening in the palace was widely disseminated throughout St. Petersburg through palace servants, sentry soldiers, etc. In autocratic Russia there were no ways of expressing public opinion, such as exist in countries with democratic political system, and therefore public opinion was expressed through palace and coups d'etat - in such a peculiar and even ugly way. From this point of view, it becomes clear that the widely held belief that the guards acted only in the interests of a handful of nobles is not true.

3. Russia in the era of Catherine II: enlightened absolutism

The long reign of Catherine II was filled with significant and highly controversial events and processes. The “Golden Age of the Russian Nobility” was at the same time the age of Pugachevism, the “Nakaz” and the Legislative Commission coexisted with the persecution of N.I. Novikov and A.N. Radishcheva. And yet it was an integral era, which had its own core, its own logic, its own ultimate task. This was the time when the imperial government tried to implement one of the most thoughtful, consistent and successful reform programs in the history of Russia (A.B. Kamensky).

The ideological basis of the reforms was the philosophy of the European Enlightenment, with which the empress was well acquainted. In this sense, her reign is often called the era of enlightened absolutism. Historians argue about what enlightened absolutism was - the utopian teaching of the enlighteners (Voltaire, Diderot, etc.) about the ideal union of kings and philosophers or a political phenomenon that found its real embodiment in Prussia (Frederick II the Great), Austria (Joseph II), Russia (Catherine II), etc. These disputes are not unfounded. They reflect the key contradiction in the theory and practice of enlightened absolutism: between the need to radically change the existing order of things (class system, despotism, lawlessness, etc.) and the inadmissibility of shocks, the need for stability, the inability to infringe on the social force on which this order rests - the nobility .

Catherine II, like perhaps no one else, understood the tragic insurmountability of this contradiction: “You,” she blamed the French philosopher D. Diderot, “write on paper that will endure everything, but I, poor empress, write on human skin, so sensitive and painful." Her position on the issue of the serf peasantry is very indicative. There is no doubt about the empress's negative attitude towards serfdom. She thought more than once about ways to cancel it. But things did not go further than cautious reflection. Catherine II clearly realized that the abolition of serfdom would be received with indignation by the nobles, and the peasant masses, ignorant and in need of leadership, would not be able to use the granted freedom for their own benefit. Feudal legislation was expanded: landowners were allowed to exile peasants to hard labor for any period of time, and peasants were forbidden to file complaints against landowners.

The most significant transformations in the spirit of enlightened absolutism were:

convening and activities of the Legislative Commission (1767-1768). The goal was to develop a new set of laws, which was intended to replace the Council Code of 1649. Representatives of the nobility, officials, townspeople, and state peasants worked in the Code Commission. For the opening of the commission, Catherine II wrote the famous “Instruction”, in which she used the works of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Beccaria and other enlighteners. It talked about the presumption of innocence, the eradication of despotism, the spread of education, and the people's welfare. The commission's activities did not bring the desired result. A new set of laws was not developed, the deputies were unable to rise above the narrow interests of the classes and did not show much zeal in developing reforms. In December 1768, the Empress dissolved the Statutory Commission and did not create any more similar institutions;

reform of the administrative-territorial division of the Russian Empire. The country was divided into 50 provinces (300-400 thousand male souls), each of which consisted of 10-12 districts (20-30 thousand male souls). A uniform system of provincial government was established: a governor appointed by the emperor, a provincial government that exercised executive power, the Treasury Chamber (collection of taxes, their expenditure), the Order of Public Charity (schools, hospitals, shelters, etc.). Courts were created, built on a strictly class principle - for nobles, townspeople, state peasants. Administrative, financial and judicial functions were thus clearly separated. The provincial division introduced by Catherine II remained until 1917;

the adoption in 1785 of the Charter of the Nobility, which secured all the class rights and privileges of the nobles (exemption from corporal punishment, the exclusive right to own peasants, pass them on by inheritance, sell, buy villages, etc.);

adoption of the Charter of the cities, formalizing the rights and privileges of the “third estate” - the townspeople. The city estate was divided into six categories, received limited rights of self-government, elected the mayor and members of the city Duma;

the adoption in 1775 of a manifesto on freedom of enterprise, according to which permission from government authorities was not required to open an enterprise;

reforms 1782-1786 in area school education.

Of course, these transformations were limited. The autocratic principle of governance, serfdom, and the class system remained unshakable. Pugachev's Peasant War, the capture of the Bastille and the execution of King Louis XVI did not contribute to the deepening of reforms. They went intermittently in the 90s. and stopped altogether. Persecution of A.N. Radishchev, arrest of N.I. Novikov were not random episodes. They testify to the deep contradictions of enlightened absolutism and the impossibility of unambiguous assessments of the “golden age of Catherine II.”

And yet, it was during this era that the Free Economic Society appeared, free printing houses operated, there was a heated journal debate in which the empress personally participated, the Hermitage and the Public Library in St. Petersburg, the Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens and pedagogical schools were founded in both capitals. Historians also say that the efforts of Catherine II, aimed at encouraging the social activity of the classes, especially the nobility, laid the foundations civil society in Russia.

Conclusion

The last time the guards regiments said their weighty word was in 1762, when Peter III, the official heir of Elizabeth Petrovna, was overthrown from the throne, and his wife was proclaimed Empress Catherine II.

Power passed from one hand to another whimsically and unpredictably. The capital guard, at its own discretion, decided to whom to transfer the throne and crown. It is not surprising that the nobility managed to achieve the fulfillment of many of their desires. The differences between patrimony and estate disappeared, and the ownership rights of nobles to land were guaranteed. Ownership of serfs became a class privilege of the nobility; it received enormous judicial and police power over the peasants, the right to exile them to Siberia without trial, to sell them without land. Term military service was limited to 25 years, a cadet corps was established, noble youths could enroll in regiments and not begin serving as soldiers. The apogee was Peter III's manifesto on the freedom of the nobility, which freed nobles from compulsory service. Elements of “enlightened absolutism” can be seen in the policies of all the monarchs of Russia in the 18th century. “Enlightened absolutism” manifested itself especially clearly under Catherine II. Catherine did not like music and singing, but she was well educated, knew the works of the ancient Greeks and Romans, read modern philosophers, and corresponded with the French enlighteners Voltaire and Diderot. She hoped to eliminate contradictions between estates and classes through legislative reforms.

Catherine II was unable to overcome irreconcilable social contradictions. The “enlightened absolutism” of Paul I and his attempts to soften serfdom ended in the death of the reformer. In the second half of the 18th century. all aspirations for a radical reorganization of the state were dashed against its very foundation - serfdom and the brutal resistance of the nobility.

List of used literature

1. Gavrilov B.I. History of Russia from ancient times to the present day: A manual for university students / B.I. Gavrilov. - M.: Publishing house "New Wave", 1998.

2. Grinin L.E. History of Russia: A guide for applicants to universities in 4 parts / L.E. Grinin. - M.: Publishing house. "Teacher", 1995.

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google_protectAndRun("render_ads. js::google_render_ad", google_handleError, google_render_ad); Lesson type: learning new material.

Goals:

Educational: identify the causes of palace coups, give a brief description of the emperors of the 18th century; show that the main driving force behind palace coups is the guard. Developmental: continue to develop the skills to summarize individual events and formulate conclusions, work with textbook illustrations and historical documents; Continue to develop students’ ability to evaluate the actions of historical figures. Educational: to develop interest in national history.

Basic concepts: Palace coups, Supreme Privy Council, favorite, condition.

Equipment: map: “Russia in the XVII - 1760s”, portraits of rulers of the era of palace coups, Surikov’s painting “Menshikov in Berezovo”, presentation

During the classes

I. Organizational moment.

II. Learning new material.

The beginning of the 18th century is associated with the activities of Peter I. We examined in detail his reforms in the field of economics, government, army and navy. And today we’ll talk about the events that happened in Russia after the death of Peter the Great.

The topic of our lesson is “Palace coups”

As the lesson progresses, we will become familiar with brief description rulers of a given era, find out the reasons for palace coups, fill out the tables “Palace coups of the 18th century”.

(tables are given to each student, during the lesson, getting acquainted with a new topic, students fill out the tables independently, check is carried out at the end of the lesson)

Directly related to the topic of our lesson are two events that occurred in last years reign of Peter I. Let's remember these events.

-What do you know about “The Case of Tsarevich Alexei”?

The “case of Tsarevich Alexei” prompted Peter to change the order of succession to the throne. In 1722 he signed a decree.

-What is the content of the decree of 1722 on the order of succession to the throne?

(wanting to transfer the throne to his youngest son, bypassing his eldest, Peter signed a decree on succession to the throne, according to which the emperor could appoint his own successor. However, the younger son did not live long, the eldest died in prison and Peter had no direct male heirs, with the exception of his grandson , son of Tsarevich Alexei.

But whether Peter and his successors managed to take advantage of this decree, this will be discussed in the lesson.

Peter the Great died on January 28, 1725. He died hard, with excruciating pain. His subjects did not dare to bother him with the question of an heir. Tradition claims that before his death Peter wrote: “Give everything...”. No further words could be made out. The decree on the right of the emperor to appoint his successor was not used. But the dynastic situation turned out to be difficult...

The rights to the throne belonged to the grandson of the deceased emperor Peter (son of Tsarevich Alexei), wife Catherine and daughters Anna and Elizabeth. There was also relatives through his older brother Ivan, with whom Peter began to reign in 1682.

But the main contenders turned out to be Ekaterina Alekseevna, the widow of Peter I (Menshikov stood behind her), and his grandson, Pyotr Alekseevich (representatives of the old boyar families he headed wanted to see him on the throne), who was then 9 years old. Menshikov was able to make better use of the current situation, and with the help of some other close associates of Peter, after the death of the emperor, with the support of the guards regiments, he elevated Ekaterina Alekseevna to the throne.

Guys. Remember what the guard is? Who was included in it?

(state people, servicemen, from different classes, not only nobles, who felt close to the court and knew their responsibility for the fate of Russia

Please note that the real armed force in the capital were the guards regiments. The enthronement and deposition of monarchs depended on them.

Therefore, applicants for the royal crown tried in every possible way to enlist the support of the guard, providing it with special favors - ranks, lands with serfs, etc.

This election opens the era of palace coups in Russia.

Palace coups - a change of power carried out by a narrow circle of courtiers and guard regiments.

Over the 37 years from 1725 to 1762, five times with the help of weapons and the guard there was a change of rulers on the throne. The beginning of this era was marked by the death of Peter I and the subsequent struggle for power among various factions. And this era will end with the accession of Empress Catherine II for a long 34 years.

So, the first ruler of the era of palace coups - Catherine I.

Catherine 1 was born in 1684 in the family of a Lithuanian philistine Samuil Skavronsky and before accepting Orthodoxy she was called Martha Skavronskaya. She was not taught to read and write. During Northern War Marta, while in a Swedish convoy, was captured by the Russians and was taken into service, who gave her up to Menshikov. Peter 1, seeing her with his favorite, was a courtier who enjoyed the special favor of the monarch.

He took her in, and in 1703 she actually became the tsar’s wife. After baptism she received the name Ekaterina Alekseevna. Contemporaries noted that Catherine had a sound, active mind and had a strong moral influence on Peter, even accompanying him on campaigns. In her honor, Peter established the Order of St. Catherine. Catherine 1 and Peter 1 had 11 children, but only two daughters survived: Anna and Elizabeth. However, they had no rights to the throne, since they were born before the official marriage of their parents and were considered illegitimate.

Catherine was not distinguished by aristocratic elegance, but she was stately and pretty. She knew how to be courteous and kind to others. After the death of Peter 1, she was elevated to the throne with the support of the guard. The emperor's favorite, in fact, the de facto ruler of Russia. Catherine 1 was practically not involved in state affairs and, even after becoming empress, did not want to learn to read and write. Under the empress, the Supreme Privy Council was created with broad powers, limiting the autocratic royal power.

Menshikov, seeing that the health of Catherine I was deteriorating and she would not live long, the prince decided to become related to royal family, hoping to marry his 16-year-old daughter Maria to Peter II. Shortly before her death, Catherine 1 instructed the VTS to play the role of collective regent for 12-year-old Peter, the son of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich. Menshikov was not against it, since he planned to marry Peter 2 to his daughter.

But luck changed him this time. Menshikov fell seriously ill. He was unable to do business for more than a month.

At this time, Prince Ivan Alekseevich Dolgoruky acquired influence over Peter II. The Tsar ceased to obey Menshikov. September 8, 1727 the prince was arrested, and then, deprived of ranks and awards, he and his family were exiled to the remote city of Berezov.

Having got rid of a dangerous rival, the Dolgorukys hastened to strengthen their position at court. In 1727 The reign of Peter II begins. And Ivan Dolgoruky’s sister, Catherine, was declared the bride of Peter II. But in January 1730, Having caught a bad cold after another hunt, Peter II fell ill with smallpox and died on the day of his supposed marriage to Catherine Dolgoruky. The Romanov dynasty ended with him in the male line.

The question of succession to the throne had to be decided by members of the Supreme Privy Council. The attention of the “higher-ups” was drawn to the daughters of Tsar Ivan Alekseevich - Catherine and Anna. The choice was made in favor of Anna, the widow of the poor Duke of Courland, who lived in Mitau as a provincial landowner, periodically begging for money from the Russian government.

Golitsyn said: “You should make it easier on yourself.” The point was to limit the power of the monarch in favor of the Supreme Privy Council by inviting Anna Ioannovna to reign. Anna was offered “condition-conditions”, by accepting which she could become an empress.

Text of the conditions signed by Anna Ioannovna.

without the discretion and consent of the high council, do not make any decisions in state affairs, therefore: do not declare war and do not make peace; do not impose any duties or taxes; no one should be condemned to death for crimes of lèse-majesté in the Secret Chancery alone, and no nobleman’s estate should be confiscated without clear evidence of the above-mentioned crime committed by him; do not give state estates to anyone; do not marry and do not designate an heir to the throne.

This document was drawn up in the spirit of a constitutional monarchy.

Define – What is a constitutional monarchy?

So, in Russia an attempt was made to limit the absolute power of the Russian monarch.

Anna signed the conditions and went to Moscow. Meanwhile, the “conditions” became known at court. The church and such an influential force as the guard and the nobility opposed them.

arrived in Moscow, she received a petition from the nobility and the guard, in which they asked her “to accept the autocracy that your praiseworthy ancestors had.” Anna, having learned about the mood of the nobility, publicly feigned indignation that the document had not been discussed among the nobility, tore the papers and threw them on the floor. The guards units supported her. The Supreme Privy Council was abolished. And the question of power was resolved. The ten-year reign of Anna Ioannovna began. The Dolgorukys were arrested and sent into exile in Berezov, where Menshikov, whom they had exiled, had died shortly before.

1730 Anna Ioannovna's reign begins until 1740.

There are different reviews, sometimes contradictory, about the appearance and character of Empress Anna Ioannovna. For some, she “had a terrible look, had a disgusting face, she was so big when among the gentlemen she walks head taller than everyone else, and extremely fat.” And here is the opinion of the Spanish diplomat Duke de Liria: “Empress Anna is fat, dark, and her face is more masculine than feminine. Generous to the point of extravagance, she loves pomp excessively, which is why her courtyard surpasses all other European ones in splendor.”

Together with Anna, many Baltic Germans arrived from Courland and took important positions in government bodies. management. The most influential was Anna's favorite -.

A contemporary wrote about Biron: “Biron’s character was not the best: arrogant, ambitious to the extreme, rude and even impudent, selfish, irreconcilable in enmity and a cruel punisher.”

gave the following characterization of the period called the Bironovschina: “The Germans poured into Russia like rubbish from a leaky bag, stuck around the courtyard, inhabited the throne, and climbed into all the profitable positions in management.”

(student’s story about Bironovism)

In the autumn of 1940 Anna Ioannovna fell ill. Her only relative was her niece (sister’s daughter) Anna Leopoldovna, who was close to the court. Anna Leopoldovna had a son, who was immediately declared heir to the throne. In October 1940, Anna Ioannovna died, appointing Biron as regent under the young Emperor Ivan Antonovich.

Biron failed to retain power. He was hated by the Russians and the Germans, and despised by the guards. The emperor's parents feared that the regent would take their son away from them and send them to Germany. November 9, 1740 Biron was arrested by guardsmen led by Field Marshal Minich.

Anna Leopoldovna became regent under Ivan Antonovich. Her reign was not marked by any important decisions. The ruler was not interested in anything. A mood in favor of a change of power began to form in the guard again. The most popular candidate for the imperial throne was the daughter of Peter I and Catherine I - Elizabeth.

Valentin Pikul in the novel “Word and Deed” describes the historical night for Russia from November 24 to 25, 1741...

“The sleigh stopped near the barracks of the Preobrazhensky Life Guards Regiment, where a company of grenadiers loyal to Elizabeth was stationed. Entering the barracks, she said to the soldiers:

Guys, you know who I am. I don’t want bad things for you, but I wish you good things. We swear on this cross that we will die for Russia together.

Lead us, written beauty! We will kill everyone!

And then I won't go. There was already enough blood...

300 grenadiers followed the woman out into the bitter cold.

French academic Albert Vandal, describing this night:

A thick layer of hardened snow covered the ground, muffling all noise. The grenadiers hurriedly followed Elizabeth's sleigh, silently and full of determination: the soldiers swore a mutual oath not to utter a single word during the journey and to bayonet the first faint-hearted one.

And here is what historians write about Elizabeth:

Lively and cheerful, but not taking her eyes off herself, at the same time large and slender, with a beautiful round and ever-blooming face, she loved to make an impression, and, knowing that a man’s suit especially suited her, she established masquerades at court without masks , when men are required to arrive in full women's attire, in wide skirts, and ladies in men's court dress. Elizaveta Petrovna left behind 15 thousand dresses.

Peaceful and carefree, she was forced to fight for almost half of her reign, defeated the first strategist of that time, Frederick the Great, and took Berlin. According to Karamzin, under Elizabeth Russia came to its senses. It was under her that the death penalty was abolished in Russia.

Blitz survey:

Teacher:

Do you believe that Elizabeth ascended the throne in 1751? (No, 1741)

Do you believe that the era of Elizabeth’s reign is called the time of “cheerful Elizabeth”? (Yes - performances, balls, masquerades).

Is it true that Elizaveta Petrovna was practically the first in Europe to abolish the death penalty? (Yes)

Elizabeth declared her nephew Peter Fedorovich - the son of Anna Petrovna, the grandson of Peter I - as her heir.

On December 25, 1761, Peter III became Emperor of Russia. He managed to reign for only 186 days. Reviews about it were completely opposite. Under Peter III, a paradoxical situation arose: the emperor, on the one hand, made concessions to the nobility, on the other, committed actions that aroused the anger and indignation of patriotic forces. Peter III insulted the guard by making peace with Prussia. On June 28, 1762, Peter III was overthrown from the throne by his wife Catherine 2 and arrested, and a week later he was killed. For 34 years, his wife Catherine II ascended the throne - an intelligent, ambitious woman took the reins of a great power.

The era of palace coups is over.

Checking the table “Palace coups of the 18th century”

Ruler	Years of reign	Who did he rely on?
Catherine I, wife of Peter I	died of consumption	Menshikov and other associates of Peter I, the guard, the Supreme Privy Council - the highest state. establishment in Russia in 17 G.
Peter II, grandson of Peter I	1 died from smallpox	Group of princes Dolgoruky and Golitsyn, guard, Supreme Privy Council
Anna Ioanovna, niece of Peter I, daughter of his older brother Ivan	1bironovschina	Support of the guard, the German nobility led by Biron. Supreme Privy Council dissolved
Ivan IV Antonovich, great-nephew of Peter	Less than a month, deposed by the guard	Regent (ruler) with full power - Biron
Elizaveta Petrovna, daughter of Peter I		Guard and Russian nobility
Peter III, grandson of Peter I	Deposed by the Guard	No support
Catherine II, wife of Peter II		Guard and Russian nobility

What were the reasons for the palace coups?

lack of legal order of succession to the throne; strengthening the role of the guard.

The final part is the primary consolidation of the material.

1. Text with errors.

After the death of Peter II, the question of power arose. The choice of the rulers fell on the Duchess of Courland Elizabeth. The leaders decided to strengthen the autocratic power and, together with the invitation to the throne, sent its conditions (conditions). The conditions were published in all newspapers. Elizabeth did not sign them. Arriving in Moscow, she found out that almost all nobles maintain good condition. After that she signed them.

2.Test. What kind of ruler are we talking about?

1. “The Tsar is a tall man with a beautiful face, well-built, with great quickness of mind, quick and definite in his answers, the only pity is that he lacks complete secular sophistication. He showed us his hands and let us feel how rough they were from work” - this is what he looked like in the eyes of foreigners:

Alexey Mikhailovich, Peter I, Peter II, Peter III.

2. “Only by signing the terms of reference,” she could become the Russian Empress:

Catherine I, Anna Ioannovna, Anna Leopoldovna, Elizaveta Petrovna.

3. Courland nobleman, distinguished by arrogance and rudeness, who played at the court of Empress Anna Ioannovna main role. His name has become a household name; it is sometimes used to refer to the entire period.

K. Friedrich, .

4. With the call for soldiers in the barracks of the Preobrazhensky Regiment to serve her as her father, and the arrest of the Brunswick family, a 20-year reign began:

Anna Leopoldovna, Elizaveta Petrovna, Catherine II, Anna Ioannovna.

Reflection.

How did I learn the material?

I gained solid knowledge, mastered all the material - 9-10 points.

Got it new material partially - 7-8 points.

I understood little, I still need to work - 4-6 points.

d/z– underline the names of monarchs who gained power as a result of palace coups, that is, with the help of the guard.