Symbolism of Western Europe at the end of the 19th century. Foreign literature of the 20th century (L.G. Andreev) French poetry of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. Symbolism. French poetry of the late xix - early xx

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CONTENT

Introduction
At the end XIX century Europe has achieved unprecedented technological progress, science has given man power over environment and continued to grow at a tremendous pace. However, it turned out that the scientific picture of the world does not fill the voids that arise in the public consciousness, and reveals its unreliability. The limitedness, superficiality of ideas about the world was confirmed by a number of natural scientific discoveries, mainly in the field of physics and mathematics. The discovery of X-rays, radiation, the invention of wireless communication, and a little later the creation of quantum theory and the theory of relativity shook the materialistic doctrine, shook faith in the absoluteness of the laws of mechanics. The previously identified “unambiguous regularities” were subjected to a significant revision: the world turned out to be not only unknowable, but also unknowable. The awareness of the fallacy and incompleteness of the previous knowledge led to the search for new ways of comprehending reality.
One of these paths - the path of creative revelation - was proposed by the symbolists, according to whom the symbol is unity and, therefore, provides a holistic view of reality. The scientific worldview was based on the sum of errors - creative knowledge can adhere to a pure source of superintelligent insights.
The appearance of symbolism was also a reaction to the crisis of religion. "God is dead," F. Nietzsche proclaimed, thus expressing the common sense of the borderline era of the exhaustion of the traditional dogma. Symbolism is revealed as a new type of God-seeking: religious and philosophical questions, the question of the superman - about a man who challenged his limited opportunities. Based on these experiences, the Symbolist movement attached paramount importance to the restoration of ties with the other world, which was expressed in the frequent appeal of the symbolists to the "secrets of the coffin", in the increasing role of the imaginary, the fantastic, in the fascination with mysticism, pagan cults, theosophy, occultism, magic. Symbolist aesthetics was embodied in the most unexpected forms, delving into an imaginary, transcendental world, into areas previously unexplored - sleep and death, esoteric revelations, the world of eros and magic, altered states of consciousness and vice.
Symbolism was also closely connected with the eschatological forebodings that seized the man of the borderline era. The expectation of the "end of the world", "the decline of Europe", the death of civilization exacerbated metaphysical moods, made spirit triumph over matter.
Among the important ideas of this time are the following:
- Darwinism (a trend named after Charles Darwin, a scientist). According to this idea, a person is determined by his environment and heredity, and he is no longer a "copy of God";
- the pessimism of culture (according to Friedrich Nietzsche, philosopher and writer) is based on the notions that there are no more religious ties, there is no overwhelming meaning, there is a reassessment of all values around. Most people are interested in nihilism;
- psychoanalysis (according to Sigmund Freud, psychologist), aimed at discovering the subconscious, dream interpretation, the study and awareness of one's own I.
The turn of the century was the time of the search for absolute values.
1. Symbolism as an artistic movement

The development of the history of world culture (the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, the 20th century and the turn of the 20th-21st centuries) can be viewed as an endless chain of novels and partings of “high literature” with the theme of capitalist society. Thus, the turn of the 19th-20th centuries was characterized by the emergence of two key trends for all subsequent literature - naturalism and symbolism.
French naturalism, represented by the names of such prominent novelists as Emile Zola, Gustave Flaubert, the Brothers Jules and Edmond Goncourt, perceived the human personality as absolutely dependent - on heredity, the environment in which it was formed, and the "moment" - that particular socio-political situation in which it exists and operates in this moment. Thus, naturalist writers were the most meticulous writers of everyday life in capitalist society at the end of the 19th century. In this matter, they were opposed by the French symbolist poets - Charles Baudelaire, Paul Verlaine, Arthur Rimbaud, Stefan Mallarmé and many others, who categorically refused to recognize the influence of the modern socio-political situation on the human personality and opposed the world of "pure art" and poetic fiction.
SYMBOLISM (from French symbolisme, from Greek symbolon - a sign, an identifying sign) is an aesthetic movement that was formed in France in 1880-1890 and became widespread in literature, painting, music, architecture and theater in many European countries at the turn of 19-20 centuries Symbolism was of great importance in Russian art of the same period, which acquired the definition of "Silver Age" in art history.
The symbolists believed that it was the symbol, and not the exact sciences, that would allow a person to break through to the ideal essence of the world, to go "from the real to the real." A special role in the comprehension of superreality was assigned to poets as carriers of intuitive revelations and poetry as the fruit of superintelligent intuitions. The emancipation of the language, the destruction of the usual relationship between the sign and the denotation, the multi-layered nature of the symbol, which carries diverse and often opposite meanings, led to the dispersion of meanings and turned the symbolist work into a “multiplicity madness”, in which things, phenomena, impressions and visions. The only thing that gave integrity at every moment to the splitting text was the unique, inimitable vision of the poet.
Removal of the writer from the cultural tradition, deprivation of his language communicative function, all-consuming subjectivity inevitably led to the hermeticism of symbolist literature and required a special reader. The Symbolists modeled for themselves his image, and this became one of their most original achievements. It was created by J.-C. Huysmans in the novel “On the contrary”: the virtual reader is in the same situation as the poet, he hides from the world and nature and lives in aesthetic solitude, both spatial (on a distant estate) and temporal ( renouncing the artistic experience of the past); through a magical creation, he enters into a spiritual cooperation with its author, into an intellectual union, so that the process of symbolist creativity is not limited to the work of a magician writer, but continues in the deciphering of his text by an ideal reader. There are very few such connoisseurs, congenial to the poet, there are no more than ten of them in the entire universe. But such a limited number does not confuse the Symbolists, for this is the number of the most chosen, and there is not one among them who would have his own kind.
2. The concept of a symbol and its significance for symbolism

Speaking of symbolism, one cannot fail to mention its central concept symbol, because it was from him that the name of this trend in art came from. It must be said that symbolism is a complex phenomenon. Its complexity and inconsistency are due, first of all, to the fact that different poets and writers put different content into the concept of a symbol.
The very name of the symbol comes from the Greek word symbolon, which translates as a sign, an identification sign. In art, a symbol is interpreted as a universal aesthetic category, which is revealed through comparison with adjacent categories of an artistic image, on the one hand, and a sign and allegory, on the other. In a broad sense, it can be said that a symbol is an image taken in the aspect of its symbolism, and that it is a sign, and that it is a sign endowed with all the organicity and inexhaustible ambiguity of the image.
Every symbol is an image; but the category of the symbol points to the image going beyond its own limits, to the presence of a certain meaning, inseparably merged with the image. The objective image and the deep meaning appear in the structure of the symbol as two poles, unthinkable, however, one without the other, but divorced from each other, so that in the tension between them the symbol is revealed. I must say that even the founders of symbolism interpreted the symbol in different ways.
In the Symbolist Manifesto, J. Moreas defined the nature of the symbol, which supplanted the traditional artistic image and became the main material of symbolist poetry. “Symbolist poetry is looking for a way to clothe the idea in a sensual form that would not be self-sufficient, but at the same time, serving the expression of the Idea, would retain its individuality,” Moréas wrote. A similar "sensual form" in which the Idea is clothed is a symbol.
The fundamental difference between a symbol and an artistic image is its ambiguity. The symbol cannot be deciphered by the efforts of the mind: at the last depth it is dark and not accessible to the final interpretation. The symbol is a window to infinity. The movement and play of semantic shades create indecipherability, the mystery of the symbol. If the image expresses a single phenomenon, then the symbol is fraught with a whole range of meanings - sometimes opposite, multidirectional. The duality of the symbol goes back to the romantic notion of two worlds, the interpenetration of two planes of being.
The multi-layered nature of the symbol, its open polysemy was based on mythological, religious, philosophical and aesthetic ideas about super-reality, incomprehensible in its essence.
The theory and practice of symbolism were closely associated with the idealistic philosophy of I. Kant, A. Schopenhauer, F. Schelling, as well as F. Nietzsche's reflections on the superman, being "beyond good and evil." At its core, symbolism merged with the Platonic and Christian concepts of the world, having adopted romantic traditions and new trends.
Not being aware of the continuation of any particular trend in art, symbolism carried the genetic code of romanticism: the roots of symbolism are in a romantic commitment to a higher principle, an ideal world. “Pictures of nature, human deeds, all the phenomena of our life are significant for the art of symbols not in themselves, but only as intangible reflections of the original ideas, indicating their secret affinity with them,” wrote J. Moreas. Hence the new tasks of art, previously assigned to science and philosophy - to approach the essence of the "most real" by creating a symbolic picture of the world, to forge the "keys of secrets".
3. Formation symbolism
3.1 Western European symbolism
As an artistic trend, symbolism publicly announced itself in France, when a group of young poets, who in 1886 rallied around S. Mallarme, realized the unity of artistic aspirations. The group included: J. Moreas, R. Gil, Henri de Regno, S. Merrill and others. In the 1990s, P. Valery, A. Gide, P. Claudel joined the poets of the Mallarmé group. P. Verlaine, who published his symbolist poems and a series of essays “Damned Poets” in the newspapers Paris Modern and La Nouvelle Rive Gauche, as well as J.K. Huysmans, who came out with the novel "On the contrary". In 1886, J. Moreas placed the Manifesto of Symbolism in Figaro, in which he formulated the basic principles of the direction, based on the judgments of C. Baudelaire, S. Mallarmé, P. Verlaine, C. Henri. Two years after the publication of the manifesto by J. Moréas, A. Bergson published his first book “On the Immediate Data of Consciousness”, in which the philosophy of intuitionism was declared, in its basic principles echoing the symbolist worldview and giving it additional justification.
3.2 Symbolism in France
The formation of symbolism in France - the country in which the symbolist movement originated and flourished - is associated with the names of the largest French poets: C. Baudelaire, S. Mallarmé, P. Verlaine, A. Rimbaud. The forerunner of symbolism in France was Charles Baudelaire, who published the book Flowers of Evil in 1857. In search of ways to the "ineffable", many symbolists took up Baudelaire's idea of "correspondences" between colors, smells and sounds. The proximity of various experiences should, according to the symbolists, be expressed in a symbol. Baudelaire's sonnet "Correspondences" became the motto of symbolist quests with the famous phrase: "Sound, smell, form, color echo." The search for correspondences is at the heart of the symbolist principle of synthesis, the unification of arts.
S. Mallarme, “the last romantic and the first decadent”, insisted on the need to “inspire images”, convey not things, but your impressions of them: “To name an object means to destroy three-quarters of the pleasure of a poem, which is created for gradual guessing, to inspire it - that's the dream."
P. Verlaine in the famous poem "Poetic Art" defined the adherence to musicality as the main sign of genuine poetic creativity: "Musicality is first of all." In Verlaine's view, poetry, like music, strives for a mediumistic, non-verbal reproduction of reality. Like a musician, the symbolist poet rushes towards the elemental flow of the beyond, the energy of sounds. If the poetry of C. Baudelaire inspired the symbolists with a deep longing for harmony in a tragically divided world, then the poetry of Verlaine amazed with its musicality, subtle feelings. Following Verlaine, the idea of music was used by many symbolists to denote creative mystery.
The poetry of the brilliant young man A. Rimbaud, who first used free verse (free verse), embodied the idea of renouncing "eloquence" adopted by the Symbolists, finding a crossing point between poetry and prose. Invading any, the most non-poetic spheres of life, Rimbaud achieved the effect of "natural supernaturalness" in the depiction of reality.
Symbolism in France also manifested itself in painting (G. Moreau, O. Rodin, O. Redon, M. Denis, Puvis de Chavannes, L. Levy-Durmer), music (Debussy, Ravel), theater (Poet Theater, Mixed Theater, Petit theater du Marionette), but the main element of symbolist thinking has always been lyricism. It was the French poets who formulated and embodied the main precepts of the new movement: the mastery of the creative secret through music, the deep correspondence of various sensations, the ultimate price of the creative act, the orientation towards a new intuitive-creative way of knowing reality, the transmission of elusive experiences. Among the forerunners of French symbolism, all the major lyricists from Dante and F. Villon to E. Poe and T. Gauthier were recognized.
3.3 Symbolism in Western Europe
Belgian symbolism is represented by the figure of the greatest playwright, poet, essayist M. Maeterlinck, known for his plays The Blue Bird, The Blind, The Miracle of St. Anthony, There, Inside. According to N. Berdyaev, Maeterlinck depicted "the eternal tragic beginning of life, cleansed of all impurities." Maeterlinck's plays were perceived by most contemporaries as puzzles that needed to be solved. M. Maeterlinck defined the principles of his work in the articles collected in the treatise Treasure of the Humble (1896). The treatise is based on the idea that life is a mystery in which a person plays a role that is inaccessible to his mind, but understandable to his inner feeling. Maeterlinck considered the main task of the playwright to be the transfer of not an action, but a state. In The Treasure of the Humble, Maeterlinck put forward the principle of “secondary” dialogues: behind an apparently random dialogue, the meaning of words that initially seem insignificant is revealed. The movement of such hidden meanings made it possible to play with numerous paradoxes (the miraculousness of everyday life, the sight of the blind and the blindness of the sighted, the madness of the normal, etc.), to plunge into the world of subtle moods.
One of the most influential figures of European symbolism was the Norwegian writer and playwright G. Ibsen. His plays Peer Gynt, Hedda Gabler, A Doll's House, The Wild Duck combined the concrete and the abstract. “Symbolism is a form of art that simultaneously satisfies our desire to see embodied reality and rise above it,” Ibsen defined. - Reality has a flip side, facts have a hidden meaning: they are the material embodiment of ideas, an idea is presented through a fact. Reality is a sensual image, a symbol of the invisible world. Ibsen distinguished between his art and the French version of symbolism: his dramas were built on "the idealization of matter, the transformation of the real", and not on the search for the beyond, the otherworldly. Ibsen gave a specific image, a fact a symbolic sound, raised it to the level of a mystical sign.
In English literature, symbolism is represented by the figure of O. Wilde. The craving for outrageous bourgeois audiences, love for paradox and aphorism, the life-creating concept of art (“art does not reflect life, but creates it”), hedonism, the frequent use of fantastic, fairy-tale plots, and later “neo-Christianity” (perception of Christ as an artist) allow attribute O. Wilde to the writers of the symbolist orientation.
Symbolism gave a powerful branch in Ireland: one of the greatest poets of the 20th century, the Irishman W.B. Yeats considered himself a Symbolist. His poetry, full of rare complexity and richness, was fed by Irish legends and myths, theosophy and mysticism. A symbol, Yeats explains, is "the only possible expression of some invisible entity, the frosted glass of a spiritual lamp."
The works of R.M. Rilke, S. George, E. Verharn, G.D. are also associated with symbolism. Annunzio, A. Strinberg and others.
4. Symbolism in Russia

After the defeat of the Revolution of 1905-07. in Russia, decadent moods were especially widespread.
Decadence (French decadence, from the late Latin decadentia - decline), the general name for the crisis phenomena of bourgeois culture of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, marked by moods of hopelessness, rejection of life, the individual, etc ........ .........

its unreliability. The limitedness, superficiality of ideas about the world was confirmed by a number of natural scientific discoveries, mainly in the field of physics and mathematics. The discovery of X-rays, radiation, the invention of wireless communication, and a little later the creation of quantum theory and the theory of relativity shook the materialistic doctrine, shook faith in the absoluteness of the laws of mechanics. The previously identified “unambiguous regularities” were subjected to a significant revision: the world turned out to be not only unknowable, but also unknowable. The awareness of the fallacy and incompleteness of the previous knowledge led to the search for new ways of comprehending reality.

One of these paths - the path of creative revelation - was proposed by the symbolists, according to whom the symbol is unity and, therefore, provides a holistic view of reality. The scientific worldview was based on the sum of errors - creative knowledge can adhere to a pure source of superintelligent insights.

The appearance of symbolism was also a reaction to the crisis of religion. "God is dead," F. Nietzsche proclaimed, thus expressing the common sense of the borderline era of the exhaustion of the traditional dogma. Symbolism is revealed as a new type of God-seeking: religious and philosophical questions, the question of the superman - about a person who has challenged his limited abilities. Based on these experiences, the Symbolist movement attached paramount importance to the restoration of ties with the other world, which was expressed in the frequent appeal of the symbolists to the "secrets of the coffin", in the increasing role of the imaginary, the fantastic, in the fascination with mysticism, pagan cults, theosophy, occultism, magic. Symbolist aesthetics was embodied in the most unexpected forms, delving into an imaginary, transcendental world, into areas previously unexplored - sleep and death, esoteric revelations, the world of eros and magic, altered states of consciousness and vice.

Symbolism was also closely connected with the eschatological forebodings that seized the man of the borderline era. The expectation of the "end of the world", "the decline of Europe", the death of civilization exacerbated metaphysical moods, made spirit triumph over matter.

Among the important ideas of this time are the following:

Darwinism (a trend named after Charles Darwin, a scientist). According to this idea, a person is determined by his environment and heredity, and he is no longer a "copy of God";

The pessimism of culture (according to Friedrich Nietzsche, philosopher and writer) is based on the notions that there are no more religious ties, there is no overwhelming meaning, there is a reassessment of all values around. Most people are interested in nihilism;

Psychoanalysis (according to Sigmund Freud, psychologist), aimed at discovering the subconscious, interpreting dreams, studying and understanding one's own Self.

The turn of the century was the time of the search for absolute values.

Symbolism as an artistic movement

French naturalism, represented by the names of such prominent novelists as Emile Zola, Gustave Flaubert, the Brothers Jules and Edmond Goncourt, perceived the human personality as absolutely dependent - on heredity, the environment in which it was formed, and the "moment" - that particular socio-political situation in which it exists and operates at the moment. Thus, naturalist writers were the most meticulous writers of everyday life in capitalist society at the end of the 19th century. In this matter, they were opposed by the French symbolist poets - Charles Baudelaire, Paul Verlaine, Arthur Rimbaud, Stefan Mallarmé and many others, who categorically refused to recognize the influence of the modern socio-political situation on the human personality and opposed the world of "pure art" and poetic fiction.

SYMBOLISM (from French symbolisme, from Greek symbolon - a sign, an identifying sign) is an aesthetic movement that was formed in France in 1880-1890 and became widespread in literature, painting, music, architecture and theater in many European countries at the turn of 19-20 centuries Symbolism was of great importance in Russian art of the same period, which acquired the definition of "Silver Age" in art history.

The symbolists believed that it was the symbol, and not the exact sciences, that would allow a person to break through to the ideal essence of the world, to go "from the real to the real." A special role in the comprehension of superreality was assigned to poets as carriers of intuitive revelations and poetry as the fruit of superintelligent intuitions. The emancipation of the language, the destruction of the usual relationship between the sign and the denotation, the multi-layered nature of the symbol, which carries diverse and often opposite meanings, led to the dispersion of meanings and turned the symbolist work into a “multiplicity madness”, in which things, phenomena, impressions and visions. The only thing that gave integrity at every moment to the splitting text was the unique, inimitable vision of the poet.

The removal of the writer from the cultural tradition, the deprivation of the language of its communicative function, the all-consuming subjectivity inevitably led to the hermeticism of symbolist literature and required a special reader. The Symbolists modeled for themselves his image, and this became one of their most original achievements. It was created by J.-C. Huysmans in the novel “On the contrary”: the virtual reader is in the same situation as the poet, he hides from the world and nature and lives in aesthetic solitude, both spatial (on a distant estate) and temporal ( renouncing the artistic experience of the past); through a magical creation, he enters into a spiritual cooperation with its author, into an intellectual union, so that the process of symbolist creativity is not limited to the work of a magician writer, but continues in the deciphering of his text by an ideal reader. There are very few such connoisseurs, congenial to the poet, there are no more than ten of them in the entire universe. But such a limited number does not confuse the Symbolists, for this is the number of the most chosen, and there is not one among them who would have his own kind.

The concept of a symbol and its significance for symbolism

The very name of the symbol comes from the Greek word symbolon, which translates as a sign, an identification sign. In art, a symbol is interpreted as a universal aesthetic category, which is revealed through comparison with adjacent categories of an artistic image, on the one hand, and a sign and allegory, on the other. In a broad sense, it can be said that a symbol is an image taken in the aspect of its symbolism, and that it is a sign, and that it is a sign endowed with all the organicity and inexhaustible ambiguity of the image.

Every symbol is an image; but the category of the symbol points to the image going beyond its own limits, to the presence of a certain meaning, inseparably merged with the image. The objective image and the deep meaning appear in the structure of the symbol as two poles, unthinkable, however, one without the other, but divorced from each other, so that in the tension between them the symbol is revealed. I must say that even the founders of symbolism interpreted the symbol in different ways.

In the Symbolist Manifesto, J. Moreas defined the nature of the symbol, which supplanted the traditional artistic image and became the main material of symbolist poetry. “Symbolist poetry is looking for a way to clothe the idea in a sensual form that would not be self-sufficient, but at the same time, serving the expression of the Idea, would retain its individuality,” Moréas wrote. A similar "sensual form" in which the Idea is clothed is a symbol.

The fundamental difference between a symbol and an artistic image is its ambiguity. The symbol cannot be deciphered by the efforts of the mind: at the last depth it is dark and not accessible to the final interpretation. The symbol is a window to infinity. The movement and play of semantic shades create indecipherability, the mystery of the symbol. If the image expresses a single phenomenon, then the symbol is fraught with a whole range of meanings - sometimes opposite, multidirectional. The duality of the symbol goes back to the romantic notion of two worlds, the interpenetration of two planes of being.

The multi-layered nature of the symbol, its open polysemy was based on mythological, religious, philosophical and aesthetic ideas about super-reality, incomprehensible in its essence.

The theory and practice of symbolism were closely associated with the idealistic philosophy of I. Kant, A. Schopenhauer, F. Schelling, as well as F. Nietzsche's reflections on the superman, being "beyond good and evil." At its core, symbolism merged with the Platonic and Christian concepts of the world, having adopted romantic traditions and new trends.

Not being aware of the continuation of any particular trend in art, symbolism carried the genetic code of romanticism: the roots of symbolism are in a romantic commitment to a higher principle, an ideal world. “Pictures of nature, human deeds, all the phenomena of our life are significant for the art of symbols not in themselves, but only as intangible reflections of the original ideas, indicating their secret affinity with them,” wrote J. Moreas. Hence the new tasks of art, previously assigned to science and philosophy - to approach the essence of the "most real" by creating a symbolic picture of the world, to forge the "keys of secrets".

Formation symbolism

1 Western European symbolism

As an artistic trend, symbolism publicly announced itself in France, when a group of young poets, who in 1886 rallied around S. Mallarme, realized the unity of artistic aspirations. The group included: J. Moreas, R. Gil, Henri de Regno, S. Merrill and others. In the 1990s, P. Valery, A. Gide, P. Claudel joined the poets of the Mallarmé group. P. Verlaine, who published his symbolist poems and a series of essays “Damned Poets”, as well as J.K. Huysmans, who published the novel "On the contrary". In 1886, J. Moreas placed the Manifesto of Symbolism in Figaro, in which he formulated the basic principles of the direction, based on the judgments of C. Baudelaire, S. Mallarmé, P. Verlaine, C. Henri. Two years after the publication of the manifesto by J. Moréas, A. Bergson published his first book “On the Immediate Data of Consciousness”, in which the philosophy of intuitionism was declared, in its basic principles echoing the symbolist worldview and giving it additional justification.

2 Symbolism in France

The formation of symbolism in France - the country in which the symbolist movement originated and flourished - is associated with the names of the largest French poets: C. Baudelaire, S. Mallarmé, P. Verlaine, A. Rimbaud. The forerunner of symbolism in France was Charles Baudelaire, who published the book Flowers of Evil in 1857. In search of ways to the "ineffable", many symbolists took up Baudelaire's idea of "correspondences" between colors, smells and sounds. The proximity of various experiences should, according to the symbolists, be expressed in a symbol. Baudelaire's sonnet "Correspondences" became the motto of symbolist quests with the famous phrase: "Sound, smell, form, color echo." The search for correspondences is at the heart of the symbolist principle of synthesis, the unification of arts.

S. Mallarme, “the last romantic and the first decadent”, insisted on the need to “inspire images”, convey not things, but your impressions of them: “To name an object means to destroy three-quarters of the pleasure of a poem, which is created for gradual guessing, to inspire it - that's the dream."

P. Verlaine in the famous poem "Poetic Art" defined the adherence to musicality as the main sign of genuine poetic creativity: "Musicality is first of all." In Verlaine's view, poetry, like music, strives for a mediumistic, non-verbal reproduction of reality. Like a musician, the symbolist poet rushes towards the elemental flow of the beyond, the energy of sounds. If the poetry of C. Baudelaire inspired the symbolists with a deep longing for harmony in a tragically divided world, then the poetry of Verlaine amazed with its musicality, subtle feelings. Following Verlaine, the idea of music was used by many symbolists to denote creative mystery.

The poetry of the brilliant young man A. Rimbaud, who first used free verse (free verse), embodied the idea of renouncing "eloquence" adopted by the Symbolists, finding a crossing point between poetry and prose. Invading any, the most non-poetic spheres of life, Rimbaud achieved the effect of "natural supernaturalness" in the depiction of reality.

Symbolism in France also manifested itself in painting (G. Moreau, O. Rodin, O. Redon, M. Denis, Puvis de Chavannes, L. Levy-Durmer), music (Debussy, Ravel), theater (Poet Theater, Mixed Theater, Petit theater du Marionette), but the main element of symbolist thinking has always been lyricism. It was the French poets who formulated and embodied the main precepts of the new movement: the mastery of the creative secret through music, the deep correspondence of various sensations, the ultimate price of the creative act, the orientation towards a new intuitive-creative way of knowing reality, the transmission of elusive experiences. Among the forerunners of French symbolism, all the major lyricists from Dante and F. Villon to E. Poe and T. Gauthier were recognized.

3 Symbolism in Western Europe

Belgian symbolism is represented by the figure of the greatest playwright, poet, essayist M. Maeterlinck, known for his plays The Blue Bird, The Blind, The Miracle of St. Anthony, There, Inside. According to N. Berdyaev, Maeterlinck depicted "the eternal tragic beginning of life, cleansed of all impurities." Maeterlinck's plays were perceived by most contemporaries as puzzles that needed to be solved. M. Maeterlinck defined the principles of his work in the articles collected in the treatise Treasure of the Humble (1896). The treatise is based on the idea that life is a mystery in which a person plays a role that is inaccessible to his mind, but understandable to his inner feeling. Maeterlinck considered the main task of the playwright to be the transfer of not an action, but a state. In The Treasure of the Humble, Maeterlinck put forward the principle of “secondary” dialogues: behind an apparently random dialogue, the meaning of words that initially seem insignificant is revealed. The movement of such hidden meanings made it possible to play with numerous paradoxes (the miraculousness of everyday life, the sight of the blind and the blindness of the sighted, the madness of the normal, etc.), to plunge into the world of subtle moods.

One of the most influential figures of European symbolism was the Norwegian writer and playwright G. Ibsen. His plays Peer Gynt, Hedda Gabler, A Doll's House, The Wild Duck combined the concrete and the abstract. “Symbolism is a form of art that simultaneously satisfies our desire to see embodied reality and rise above it,” Ibsen defined. - Reality has a flip side, facts have a hidden meaning: they are the material embodiment of ideas, an idea is presented through a fact. Reality is a sensual image, a symbol of the invisible world. Ibsen distinguished between his art and the French version of symbolism: his dramas were built on "the idealization of matter, the transformation of the real", and not on the search for the beyond, the otherworldly. Ibsen gave a specific image, a fact a symbolic sound, raised it to the level of a mystical sign.

In English literature, symbolism is represented by the figure of O. Wilde. The craving for outrageous bourgeois audiences, love for paradox and aphorism, the life-creating concept of art (“art does not reflect life, but creates it”), hedonism, the frequent use of fantastic, fairy-tale plots, and later “neo-Christianity” (perception of Christ as an artist) allow attribute O. Wilde to the writers of the symbolist orientation.

Symbolism gave a powerful branch in Ireland: one of the greatest poets of the 20th century, the Irishman W.B. Yeats considered himself a Symbolist. His poetry, full of rare complexity and richness, was fed by Irish legends and myths, theosophy and mysticism. A symbol, Yeats explains, is "the only possible expression of some invisible entity, the frosted glass of a spiritual lamp."

The works of R.M. Rilke, S. George, E. Verharn, G.D. are also associated with symbolism. Annunzio, A. Strinberg and others.

Symbolism in Russia

After the defeat of the Revolution of 1905-07. in Russia, decadent moods were especially widespread.

Decadence (French decadence, from late Latin decadentia - decline), the general name for the crisis phenomena of bourgeois culture of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, marked by moods of hopelessness, rejection of life, and individualism. A number of features of the decadent mentality also distinguish some areas of art, which are united by the term modernism.

A complex and contradictory phenomenon, decadence has its source in the crisis of bourgeois consciousness, the confusion of many artists in the face of sharp antagonisms. social reality, before the revolution, in which they saw only the destructive force of history. From the point of view of the decadents, any concept of social progress, any form of social class struggle pursues grossly utilitarian goals and must be rejected. "The greatest historical movements of mankind seem to them to be profoundly 'petty-bourgeois' in nature." The refusal of art from political and civic themes and motives was considered by the decadents to be a manifestation of the freedom of creativity. The decadent understanding of individual freedom is inseparable from the aestheticization of individualism, and the cult of beauty as the highest value is often imbued with immorality; constant for the decadents are the motives of non-existence and death.

As a characteristic trend of the time, decadence cannot be attributed entirely to any particular one or several trends in art. The rejection of reality, the motives of despair and all-negation, the longing for spiritual ideals, which took on artistically expressive forms among major artists captured by decadent moods, aroused sympathy and support from realist writers who retained faith in the values of bourgeois humanism (T. Mann, R. Martin du Gahr, W. Faulkner).

In Russia, decadence was reflected in the work of symbolist poets (first of all, the so-called "senior" symbolists of the 1890s: N. Minsky, the decadents Merezhkovsky, Z. Gippius, then V. Bryusov, K. Balmont), in a number of works L. N. Andreev, in the works of F. Sologub and especially in the naturalistic prose of M. P. Artsybashev, A. P. Kamensky and others.

The heyday of Russian symbolism came in the 900s, after which the movement waned: significant works no longer appear within the framework of the school, new trends appear - acmeism and futurism, the symbolist worldview ceases to correspond to the dramatic realities of the "real, non-calendar twentieth century". Anna Akhmatova described the situation at the beginning of the 1910s in the following way: “In 1910, a crisis of symbolism was clearly indicated, and beginning poets no longer joined this trend. Some went to futurism, others - to acmeism.<…>Undoubtedly, symbolism was a phenomenon of the nineteenth century. Our rebellion against symbolism is completely justified, because we felt like people of the twentieth century and did not want to live in the previous one.

Only those authors who dealt with the problems of a single class pleasing to the new government, the proletariat, got into Soviet textbooks of literature. All the other classes were admitted to "high art" only from the point of view of exposing their viciousness (aristocracy), passivity (intelligentsia) and outright hostility (bourgeoisie) in building a new society - classless and, according to by and large, non-economic communism. Naturally, with this approach, many authors frankly misinterpreted, while others - champions of "pure art", not at all concerned with economic and class problems - from Soviet history literature was simply thrown out or declared to be "decadent followers of idealistic philosophy."

Despite this, such features of symbolism appeared on Russian soil, such as: the diversity of artistic thinking, the perception of art as a way of knowing, the sharpening of religious and philosophical problems, neo-romantic and neoclassical tendencies, the intensity of the worldview, neomythologism, the dream of a synthesis of arts, a rethinking of the heritage of Russian and Western European culture, installation on the marginal price of the creative act and life-creation, deepening into the sphere of the unconscious, etc.

Numerous are the echoes of the literature of Russian symbolism with painting and music. The poetic dreams of the Symbolists find their correspondence in the “gallant” painting of K. Somov, the retrospective dreams of A. Benois, the “created legends” of M. Vrubel, in the “motives without words” of V. Borisov-Musatov, in the exquisite beauty and classical detachment of the canvases of Z. Serebryakova , "poems" by A. Scriabin.

The main place in the movement of artistic symbolism rightfully belongs to M.A. Vrubel, who absorbed all the contradictions, all the depth of brilliant insights and tragic prophecies of the time. In his spiritual visions, he often outstripped the discoveries of literary and philosophical thought, with his formal innovations he laid the foundations for the plastic features of modernity. In his graphic heritage, as well as in all his work, the task of synthesis dominates, equally manifested both in the desire to create a stylistic unity of all the visual arts, the construction of a new artistic space, and in ideological "pan-aestheticism".

Symbolism in the dense space of art of the late 19th - early 20th centuries took shape in parallel with the development of other important artistic processes in Russian culture. national feature it was a complex structure of relationships, when the common ground of densely mixed ideas of European and Russian philosophical and aesthetic thought equally nourished both symbolism (late compared to Western European) and the direction of the Russian avant-garde. It is not for nothing that the categories of synthesis, intuitionism, insight, cardinal in the creative method of symbolism, have become one of the fundamental ones in the art of the avant-garde.

In this situation, artistic symbolism, which adopted the aesthetic program of Russian literary symbolism and was distinguished by great heterogeneity (we note that all the major avant-garde masters experienced its influence in the early stages of their work), did not put forward the problem of form.

At the turn of the century, Russian art overcame national boundaries and became a world-class phenomenon. It used all the richness of world and its own cultural traditions for the formation of domestic modernity. The artistic language of Art Nouveau in Russia manifested itself both in a pan-European version (“floreal”) and in a bouquet of “neo-styles”. The impulsive and variable nature of the development of Russian culture was clearly manifested in a mixture of styles, schools and trends of the Silver Age. None of the mentioned directions of painting disappeared with the appearance on the scene of a powerful avant-garde movement. Only the leader has changed.

Art Nouveau acted as a powerful unifying movement of culture based on the synthesis of the arts, primarily music, painting, theater. He had every chance of becoming a real "Big style" of the era. Synthetism of the Silver Age served as an accelerator for the development of a type of new culture.

Conclusion

Symbolism as an artistic movement arose in Europe in the 60s and 70s. and quickly covered all areas of creativity from music to philosophy and architecture, becoming the universal language of culture of the late XIX - early XX centuries. A new artistic wave spread throughout Europe, captured both Americas and Russia. With the emergence of the current of symbolism, Russian literature immediately found itself in the mainstream of the pan-European cultural process. Poetic symbolism in Russia, Jugendstil in Germany, the Art Nouveau movement in France, European and Russian Art Nouveau - all these are phenomena of the same order. The movement towards a new language of culture was pan-European, and Russia was among its leaders.

Symbolism laid the foundation for modernist trends in the culture of the 20th century, became a renewing ferment that gave a new quality to literature, new forms of artistry. In the work of the largest writers of the 20th century, both Russian and foreign (A. Akhmatova, M. Tsvetaeva, A. Platonov, B. Pasternak, V. Nabokov, F. Kafka, D. Joyce, E. Pound, M. Proust , W. Faulkner, etc.), - the strongest influence of the modernist tradition inherited from symbolism.

Symbolism turned out to be a new world outlook. It turned out that the era of a certain breakdown of past values could not be satisfied with a formal, logical, rational approach. She needed a new method. And accordingly, this method gave rise to a new unit - a symbol. Thus, symbolism not only brought the symbol into the toolkit of modernity, it also drew attention to the possible path after the symbol, to the intuitive path, and not just the rational one. However, each won piece of intuitive knowledge as a result, as a rule, is rationalized, because they tell about it, call for it. The new that symbolism brings can be seen in the connection to contemporary issues the whole variety of past cultures.

This is, as it were, an attempt to illuminate the deepest contradictions of modern culture with the colored rays of diverse cultures; “Now we seem to be living through the whole past: India, Persia, Egypt, like Greece, like the Middle Ages, come to life, epochs that are closer to us are rushing past us. They say that during the important hours of life, a person's whole life flies before the spiritual gaze of a person; now the whole life of mankind flies before us; we conclude from this that an important hour of his life has struck for all mankind. We really feel something new; but we feel it in the old; in the overwhelming abundance of the old - the novelty of the so-called symbolism "

This is a paradoxical statement - the most "modern" direction for that period sees its novelty in clear references to the past. But it reflects the actual inclusion in the "data bank" of the symbolism of all epochs and all peoples. Another explanation for this phenomenon may be that symbolism, in a certain sense, reaches the meta level, giving rise not only to texts, but also to their theory, and such “self-descriptions” to a large extent crystallize around themselves not only their own reality, but also any other.

Thus, the change in worldview foundations at the turn of the XIX - XX centuries. combined with creative searches in the field of artistic language. The most full-blooded result of the changes was expressed in the formation of the aesthetic system of symbolism, which became the impetus for the renewal of all spheres of culture. The pinnacle of the poetry of symbolism falls on the generation of A.A. Blok and A. Bely, when the artistic language of the new art was developed on the basis of retrospectivism, the synthesis of various areas of creativity, and the orientation towards co-authorship of the creator and consumer of a cultural product.

Symbolism played the role of a formative, carrying aesthetic construction for the entire Russian culture of the early twentieth century. All other aesthetic schools, in fact, either continued and developed the principles of symbolism, or competed with it.

Bibliography

1. Bely A. Symbolism as a worldview. M., 1994.

2. Bely A. The meaning of art // Bely A. Criticism. Aesthetics. Theory of symbolism. In 2 vols. - T. 1. - M., 1994.

3. History of Russian literature: XX century: Silver Age / Ed. J. Niva et al. M., 1995.

4. Mikhailovsky B.V. Russian literature of the twentieth century: From the 90s. 19th century until 1917 - L. 1989.

5. Nolman M.L. Charles Baudelaire. Fate. Aesthetics. Style. M., 1979.

6. Oblomievsky M.A. French symbolism. M., 1973.

7. Payman A. History of Russian symbolism. M., 1998.

8. Rapatskaya L.A. Art of the Silver Age. M., 1996.

9. Rapatskaya L.A. Russian artistic culture. M., 1998.

10. Sarabyanov D.V. History of Russian art of the late XIX - early XX centuries. M., 1993.

11. Encyclopedia of Symbolism / Ed. J. Kassu. M., 1998.

Symbolism Symbolism (Greek simbolon - sign, symbol) - one of the largest movements
in art, characterized by experimentation, the desire for
innovation, the use of symbols, innuendo, hints,
mystery and mystery.
In their works, the symbolists tried to reflect the life of every soul -
full of experiences, vague, vague moods, subtle feelings, fleeting
impressions.
It originated in France in the 1870-1880s and reached its greatest development in
at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, primarily in France itself, Belgium and Russia.
This trend in Russia deserves special attention, where it
used Western ideas, but offered its own distinctive features And
characteristics. This includes communication with the people and the state and appeal to
other historical eras.

Symbolism and other currents

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Acmeism. Appeared from symbolism, but opposed it. Direction
foresaw materiality, simplicity of images and high accuracy of the word;
Futurism. The basis was the rejection of diverse cultural
stereotypes and their destruction. Technology and processes play an important role
urbanization, which saw the future of the world;
Cubofuturism. Characterized by the rejection of the ideals of the past and the orientation
for the future;
Egofuturism. This area is characterized by the use of new
foreign words, cultivation of pure feelings and sensations,
demonstration of self-love;
Imagism. The basis is the creation of a certain image. Main
expressive means that was used for this is
metaphor. The direction is characterized by the use of anarchist ideas and
outrageous.

Characteristic features of symbolism

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Innovation and desire for experimentation;
Mysteriousness, ambiguity and understatement;
Love, death, suffering - the so-called eternal themes, the main
motives of symbolism in fine arts;
Appeal to allegory, mythological and biblical subjects;
The presence in the picture of symbols that refer the viewer to others
sources of knowledge;
Simplified, generalized image;
Clear contours of details;
Large space of monophonic background of the picture.

John Everett Millais. Ophelia. Tate Gallery, London. 1852

Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Beloved. Tate Gallery, London. 1865 - 1866

Puvis de Chavannes (1824 - 1898)

Character traits:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
One of the founders of symbolism;
Rigid organization of composition and placement of figures in the landscape
parallel plans;
Plots are determined by man's eternal occupations;
P. Puvis de Chavannes method: sketches from nature - stylization and generalization
- tight outline - onion skinning - distribution of thumbnails
on the canvas (determining the place of the figure as a whole);
A clear silhouette, a special meaning of the contour;
The line is the main shaping element.

Hope. Musee d'Orsay, Paris. 1871

Hope. Walters Gallery, Baltimore. 1872

Saint Genevieve contemplating Paris. Panel from the cycle “The Life of Saint Genevieve”. Pantheon, Paris. 1874 - 1898

Sacred grove, beloved by the muses and the arts. Art Institute, Chicago. 1884 - 1889

Poor fisherman. Musee d'Orsay, Paris. 1881

Girls by the sea. Musee d'Orsay, Paris. 1879

Paul Gauguin. Where did we come from? Who are we? Where are we going? Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 1897 - 1898

Paul Gauguin. Yellow Christ. Albright-Knox Gallery, Buffalo. 1889

Paul Gauguin. Green Christ. Museum of Fine Arts, Brussels. 1889

Group "Nabi" (1890 - 1905)

Group founders Paul Serusier, Pierre Bonnard, Jean Edouard Vuillard, Paul
Elie Ranson and Maurice Denis.
All of them were fond of the work of Paul Gauguin, sought to find their way into
art and wanted to make creativity not only work, but also a style
life.
The group's work was close to literary symbolism and
characterized by the predominance of color, decorative
generalization of forms, soft musicality of rhythms, planar
stylization of the motifs of the art of different nations: French folk
art, Japanese prints and Italian primitivists.

Paul Eli Ranson. Landscape of the Prophet. 1890

Paul Serusier. Mascot. Musee d'Orsay, Paris. 1888

Pierre Bonnard. Party of croquet. Musee d'Orsay, Paris. 1892

Maurice Denis. Landscape with green trees. Private collection. 1893

Jean Edouard Vuillard. In the room. Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts, Moscow. 1904

Gustave Moreau (1826 - 1898)

Character traits:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mythological and biblical themes in creativity;
The principle of "beautiful inertia" - all the characters in the picture must
portrayed in a state of deep self-absorption;
The principle of "necessary splendor" - the picture must be for
the viewer, first of all, with a fantastic vision, the beauty of which gives
pleasure;
Bright colors and play of light;
Ornaments and decorative details.

Oedipus and the Sphinx. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. 1864

Phenomenon. Gustave Moreau Museum, Paris. OK. 1875

Unicorns. Gustave Moreau Museum, Paris. OK. 1885

Jupiter and Semele. Gustave Moreau Museum, Paris. OK. 1894

Odilon Redon (1840 - 1916)

Character traits:
1. One of the founders of symbolism and the Society of Independent
2.
3.
4.
5.
artists";
"Black" and "color" periods of creativity;
The harbinger of irrealism in painting and art, addressed to
the human psyche;
The works reflected the creations of his imagination;
Strived to find such a form of artistic expression,
which could awaken in the viewer the thought and desire for
introspection.

Spirit. Keeper of the waters 1878

Player. From the series “In a dream”. 1879

Smiling spider. Louvre, Paris. 1881

light profile. Private collection. 1881 - 1886

Parsifal. 1891

Christ of the Sacred Heart. Louvre, Paris. OK. 1895

Birth of Venus. Musee d'Orsay, Paris. OK. 1910

Edvard Munch (1863 - 1944)

Character traits:
1. Most of his life he worked on a large
2.
3.
4.
5.
cycle "about love, life and death", which he called "Frieze
life";
Rigid color contrast and sharpness of shapes;
The rhythm of the composition;
Developed his own style;
Favorite symbols: fair-haired girl - a flower in white
clothes, a red-haired vampire woman and a grieving mother.

In the second half of the XIX century. in Western Europe cultural center France is becoming, bourgeois democracy is being asserted, the first features of the emerging mass consciousness are manifesting. The concentration of inhabitants in cities is accompanied by a dynamization of life associated with the development of industry, transport, communications, and the acceleration of the pace of social evolution and scientific progress.

The flow of information has increased dramatically, prompting attempts to create a global information system. There was no radio or television yet, but the electric telegraph had already brought remote points closer the globe and the growing circulation of newspapers contributed to a wider dissemination of information.

Social and humanitarian sciences had to take into account the mass factor. Distribution and consumption of art from the middle of the XIX century. characterized primarily by a sharply growing democratization. Literature occupied a leading position, publishing was developing, a mass of new magazines appeared with previously unseen circulations.

Already in the previous era, there was a delimitation of functions in creative activity: in addition to artists, a special corps of intermediaries arose - publishers, merchants works of art, entrepreneurs, etc. The mainspring of the distribution of works of art was commercial interest. The entrepreneur tried to please all tastes, so the creation of base and pseudo-artistic products was encouraged. It was in the 19th century. starts Mass culture with all its contradictions and vices.

Starting from realism and romanticism, new artistic and aesthetic theories arise, which have gained more or less popularity. The successor of some romantic traditions was the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, which arose in England in 1842, a society of poets and artists: the poet and painter D.P. Rosseti (1828-1882), poet K. Rosseti (1830-1879), painters Des.E. Milles (1842-1896) and E. Burne-Jones (1821-1878), artist, designer, writer W. Morris (1834-1896). The rejection of modern civilization was combined among the Pre-Raphaelites with the idealization of the Middle Ages and the Early Renaissance, the requirements of the aestheticization of life. They sought to revive "naive religiosity" in art. The ideas of the Pre-Raphaelites later largely influenced the development of symbolism in English literature (O. Wilde), the Art Nouveau style in the visual and decorative arts.

Symbolism

As a new trend in art, symbolism developed in Europe in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The most prominent representatives of French symbolism were the poets Paul Verlaine (1844-1896), Stéphane Mallarmé (1842-1898), Arthur Rimbaud (1854-1891) and others.

P. Verlaine (collections of poems "Gallant festivities", "Romances without words", "Wisdom") introduced a complex world of feelings and experiences into lyrical poetry, gave subtle musicality to the verse.

The work of O. Mallarme is characterized by a complicated syntax, inversions, the desire to convey the "supersensible". This is clearly seen in the dramatic fragments of "Herodias" and the collection "Poems".

One of the main figures of French poetry is A. Rimbaud, the author of books of poetry and prose "Through Hell" and "Illuminations", imbued with illogicality, "fragmentation" of thoughts, anti-bourgeoisness and prophetic pathos:

The poet himself makes himself receptive, by a prolonged, exhausting, and carefully thought-out disorder of all the senses.

Symbolism also spread in other countries: in Germany - in the work of Stefan George (1868-1933), in Austria - Hugo Hofmannsthal (1874-1923) and Rainer Maria Rilke (1875-1926), in Belgium - Maurice Maeterlinck (1862-1949), Georges Rodenbach (1855-1898).

S. George defended the cult of "pure art" and its messianic role in the collections "The Seventh Ring", "The Star of the Union". He was influenced by F. Nietzsche (collection "The New Kingdom").

The lyrics and dramaturgy of G. Hofmannsthal ("Every Man") are imbued with symbolism.

The leading theme of Rilke's work is the desire to overcome loneliness through love for people and merging with nature. His works ("Book of Images", "Book of Hours") combine philosophical symbolism, musicality and plasticity. The novel-diary "Notes to Malte Laurids Brigge" anticipates existentialist prose.

The protest against the earthiness of naturalism was expressed by M. Maeterlinck in his symbolistic poetics. He is the author of the plays "Sister Beatrice", "Monna Vanna", "The Blue Bird". Maeterlinck is a laureate Nobel Prize 1911

The work of the greatest symbolist poet J. Rodenbach, the author of the symbolic novels "Dead Bruges", "The Ringer", is of a religious and mystical nature.

The Symbolists, focusing their attention on artistic expression through the symbols of "things in themselves" and ideas that are beyond human sensory perception, sought to break through the visible reality to the "hidden realities", the supertemporal ideal essence of the world, its "imperishable" beauty. Here, the leading tendencies of modern art have already clearly manifested themselves - a yearning for spiritual freedom, a tragic foreboding of social catastrophes, distrust of age-old cultural and spiritual values, and mysticism.

The painful decline of civilization is an indisputable evidence for the outstanding French poet Charles Baudelaire (1821-1867). He is a forerunner of French symbolism. His main book received a name that is defiant, but exactly corresponding to the condensed tragic vision of the world - "Flowers of Evil". This is hatred for the bourgeois world, anarchist rebellion, longing for harmony. The poet combines these feelings with the recognition of the invincibility of evil:

The real travelers are those who set out on their journey, leaving the past behind.

4.1 Symbolism

Symbolism (fr. symbolisme, from Greek - sign, symbol) - an artistic direction in European and Russian art of the 1870s - 1910s, which first arose during French literature. The philosophical and aesthetic principles of symbolism go back to the works of A. Schopenhauer, E. Hartmann, F. Nietzsche, the work of R. Wagner and are characterized by a negative attitude towards materialism and positivism. With the help of (supersensible intuition), the Symbolists intended to penetrate the secrets of the world, hidden under the outer cover. Symbolism comes from the belief that modern culture lacks fantasy and spirituality. The symbolist artist creates works that give vent to the imagination.

The main representatives of symbolism in literature are P. Verlaine, P. Valery, A. Rimbaud, S. Mallarme, M. Maeterlinck, A.A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach.I. Ivanov, F.K. Sologub; V fine arts: E. Munch, G. Moreau, M.K. Chyurlionis, M.A. Vrubel, V.E. Borisov-Musatov; close to symbolism is the work of P. Gauguin and the masters of the group (Nabis), the graphics of O. Beardsley, the work of many masters of the style (modern). The most prominent representatives of French symbolism were the poets Paul Verlaine (1844-1896), Stéphane Mallarmé (1842-1898), Arthur Rimbaud (1854-1891). P. Verlaine (collection of poems (Gallant festivities)) introduced into lyrical poetry a complex world of feelings and experiences, gave the verse a subtle musicality. The work of O. Mallarme is characterized by a complicated syntax, the desire to convey (supersensible). His dramatic works are imbued with motives of loneliness and powerlessness before life. A. Rimbaud in his poems expressed the fragmentation of thought and reality, striving to penetrate the mystery of reality by combining poetic images.

Under the influence of representatives of critical realism painting (Courbet, Daumier), a new trend in art appeared - impressionism (from the French impression - impression).

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