The last geological and current Quaternary period was identified in 1829 by the scientist Jules Denoyer. In Russia, it is also called anthropogenic. The author of this name in 1922 was the geologist Alexei Pavlov. With his initiative, he wanted to emphasize that this particular period is associated with the appearance of man.

The uniqueness of the period

Compared with other geological periods, the Quaternary period is characterized by an extremely short duration (only 1.65 million years). Continuing today, it remains unfinished. Another feature is the presence in the Quaternary deposits of the remains of human culture. This period is characterized by repeated and abrupt climatic changes that radically influenced natural conditions.

Periodically repeated cold snaps led to glaciation of northern latitudes and humidification of low latitudes. Warmings caused exactly Sedimentary formations of the last millennia are distinguished by the complex structure of the section, the relative short duration of formation and the diversity of layers. The Quaternary period is divided into two epochs (or divisions): Pleistocene and Holocene. The border between them lies at the mark of 12 thousand years ago.

Migrations of flora and fauna

From its very beginning, the Quaternary period was characterized by close to the modern flora and fauna. Changes in this fund depended entirely on a series of cooling and warming periods. With the onset of glaciation, cold-loving species migrated south and mixed with strangers. During periods of increasing average temperatures, the reverse process occurred. At that time, the area of ​​settlement of moderately warm, subtropical and tropical flora and fauna greatly expanded. For some time entire tundra associations of the organic world disappeared.

Flora had to adapt several times to radically changing conditions of existence. Many cataclysms during this time marked the Quaternary period. Climatic swings led to the impoverishment of broad-leaved and evergreen forms, as well as the expansion of the range of herbaceous species.

Mammal evolution

The most noticeable changes in the animal world have affected mammals (especially ungulates and proboscis of the Northern Hemisphere). In the Pleistocene, due to sharp climatic changes, many heat-loving species died out. At the same time, for the same reason, new animals appeared, better adapted to life in harsh conditions. natural conditions. The extinction of the fauna reached its peak during the Dnieper glaciation (300 - 250 thousand years ago). At the same time, cooling determined the formation of a platform cover in the Quaternary.

Late Pliocene south of Eastern Europe was home to mastodons, southern elephants, hipparions, saber-toothed tigers, Etruscan rhinos, etc. In the west of the Old World lived ostriches and hippos. However, already in the early Pleistocene animal world began to change radically. With the onset of the Dnieper glaciation, many heat-loving species moved to the south. The distribution area of ​​the flora shifted in the same direction. The Cenozoic era (the Quaternary period in particular) tested any form of life for strength.

Quaternary bestiary

On southern borders glacier, species such as the rhinoceros, reindeer, Musk Ox, Lemmings, Partridges. All of them lived exclusively in cold regions. bears, hyenas, giant rhinos and other heat-loving animals that used to live in these regions have died out.

A cold climate was established in the Caucasus, in the Alps, Carpathians and Pyrenees, which forced many species to leave the highlands and settle in the valleys. Woolly rhinos and mammoths even occupied southern Europe (not to mention all of Siberia, from where they came to North America). australia, South America, South and Central Africa has survived due to its own isolation from the rest of the world. Mammoths and other animals, well adapted to the harsh climate, died out at the beginning of the Holocene. It should be noted that despite numerous glaciations, about 2/3 of the Earth's surface has never been affected by the ice sheet.

Human development

As mentioned above, the various definitions of the Quaternary period cannot do without "anthropogenic". The rapid development of man is the most important event of this entire historical period. Today, East Africa is considered the place where the most ancient people appeared.

The ancestral form of modern man is Australopithecus, which belonged to the family of hominids. According to various estimates, they first appeared in Africa 5 million years ago. Australopithecus gradually became upright and omnivorous. About 2 million years ago, they learned how to make primitive tools. This is how Pithecanthropus appeared a million years ago, the remains of which are found in Germany, Hungary and China.

Neanderthals and modern humans

350 thousand years ago, paleoanthropes (or Neanderthals) appeared, extinct 35 thousand years ago. Traces of their activities were found in the southern and temperate latitudes Europe. Paleoanthropes were replaced by modern people (neoanthropes or homo sapines). They were the first to penetrate into America and Australia, and also colonized numerous islands of several oceans.

Already the earliest neoanthropes were almost indistinguishable from today's people. They adapted well and quickly to climatic changes and skillfully learned how to work stone. acquired bone products, primitive musical instruments, objects visual arts, decorations.

The Quaternary period in the south of Russia left numerous archaeological sites related to neoanthropes. However, they also reached the northernmost regions. People learned to survive the cold snap with the help of fur clothes and fires. Therefore, for example, the Quaternary period of Western Siberia was also marked by the expansion of people who tried to develop new territories. 5 thousand years ago began 3 thousand years ago - iron. At the same time, centers of ancient civilization were born in Mesopotamia, Egypt and the Mediterranean.

Minerals

Scientists have divided into several groups the minerals that the Quaternary period has left us. Deposits of the last millenniums belong to various placers, non-metallic and combustible materials, ores of sedimentary origin. Coastal and alluvial deposits are known. The most important minerals of the Quaternary period: gold, diamonds, platinum, cassiterite, ilmenite, rutile, zircon.

In addition, they are of great importance iron ore lacustrine and lacustrine-marsh origin. This group also includes manganese and copper-vanadium deposits. Such accumulations are common in the oceans.

Subsoil wealth

Even today, the equatorial and tropical rocks of the Quaternary period continue to be weathered. As a result of this process, laterite is formed. This formation is covered with aluminum and iron and is an important African mineral. The metal-bearing crusts of the same latitudes are rich in deposits of nickel, cobalt, copper, manganese, and refractory clays.

Important non-metallic minerals also appeared in the Quaternary period. These are gravels (they are widely used in construction), molding and glass sands, potash and rock salts, sulfur, borates, peat, and lignite. Quaternary deposits contain The groundwater, which are the main source of pure drinking water. Do not forget about permafrost and ice. In general, the last geological period remains the crown of the geological evolution of the Earth, which began more than 4.5 billion years ago.

Currently, the Cenozoic era continues on Earth. This stage of the development of our planet is relatively short when compared with the previous ones, for example, the Proterozoic or Archean. While it is only 65.5 million years.

The geological processes that took place during the Cenozoic shaped the modern appearance of the oceans and continents. Gradually, the climate changed and, as a result, the flora in one or another part of the planet. The previous era - the Mesozoic - ended with the so-called Cretaceous catastrophe, which led to the extinction of many animal species. Start new era was marked by the fact that the empty ecological niches began to be filled again. The development of life in the Cenozoic era took place rapidly both on land and in water and in the air. The dominant position was occupied by mammals. Finally, human ancestors appeared. People turned out to be very "promising" creatures: despite repeated climate changes, they not only survived, but also evolved, settling all over the planet. Over time, human activity has become another factor in the transformation of the Earth.

Cenozoic era: periods

Previously, the Cenozoic (“era of new life”) was usually divided into two main periods: Tertiary and Quaternary. Now there is another classification. The very first stage of the Cenozoic is the Paleogene ("ancient formation"). It began about 65.5 million years ago and lasted 42 million years. The Paleogene is divided into three sub-periods (Paleocene, Eocene and Oligocene).

The next stage is the Neogene ("new formation"). This epoch began 23 million years ago, and its duration was approximately 21 million years. The Neogene period is divided into Miocene and Pliocene. It is important to note that the emergence of human ancestors dates back to the end of the Pliocene (although at that time they did not even resemble modern people). Somewhere 2-1.8 million years ago, the Anthropogenic, or Quaternary period began. It continues to this day. Throughout the Anthropogen, human development took place (and is happening). The sub-periods of this stage are the Pleistocene (epoch of glaciation) and Holocene (post-glacial epoch).

Climatic conditions of the Paleogene

The long period of the Paleogene opens the Cenozoic era. The climate of the Paleocene and Eocene was mild. At the equator, the average temperature reached 28 °C. In the North Sea area, the temperature was not much lower (22-26 °C).

On the territory of Svalbard and Greenland, evidence was found that plants characteristic of modern subtropics felt quite comfortable there. Traces of subtropical vegetation have also been found in Antarctica. There were no glaciers or icebergs in the Eocene yet. There were areas on Earth that did not lack moisture, regions with a variable humid climate and arid regions.

During the Oligocene period, it became sharply colder. At the poles, the average temperature dropped to 5°C. The formation of glaciers began, which later formed the Antarctic Ice Sheet.

Paleogene flora

The Cenozoic era is the time of the widespread domination of angiosperms and gymnosperms (conifers). The latter grew only in high latitudes. The equator was dominated by rainforests, which were based on palm trees, ficuses and various representatives of sandalwood. The farther from the sea, the drier the climate became: in the depths of the continents savannahs and woodlands spread.

In the middle latitudes, moisture-loving tropical and plants were common. temperate climate(tree ferns, breadfruit, sandalwood, banana trees). Closer to high latitudes species composition became completely different. These places are characterized by typical subtropical flora: myrtle, chestnut, laurel, cypress, oak, thuja, sequoia, araucaria. Plant life in the Cenozoic era (in particular, in the Paleogene era) flourished even beyond the Arctic Circle: in the Arctic, Northern Europe and America, the predominance of coniferous-broad-leaved deciduous forests was noted. But there were also subtropical plants listed above. The polar night was not an obstacle to their growth and development.

Paleogene fauna

The Cenozoic era provided the fauna with a unique chance. The animal world has changed dramatically: the dinosaurs were replaced by primitive small mammals that live mainly in forests and swamps. There are fewer reptiles and amphibians. Various proboscis animals predominated, including indicotheres (similar to rhinoceroses), tapir and pig-like animals.

As a rule, many of them were adapted to spend part of the time in the water. During the Paleogene period, the ancestors of horses, various rodents, and later predators (creodonts) also appear. Toothless birds nest on the tops of trees, predatory diatryms live in the savannas - birds that cannot fly.

Great variety of insects. As for the marine fauna, the flowering of cephalopods and bivalves, corals; primitive crayfish, cetaceans appear. The ocean at this time belongs to bony fish.

Neogene climate

The Cenozoic era continues. The climate in the Neogene era remains relatively warm and rather humid. But the cooling, which began in the Oligocene, makes its own adjustments: the glaciers no longer melt, the humidity drops, and the continental climate intensifies. By the end of the Neogene, zoning approached modern (the same can be said about the outlines of the oceans and continents, as well as about the relief earth's surface). The Pliocene marked the beginning of another cold snap.

Neogene, Cenozoic era: plants

At the equator and in the tropical zones, either savannahs or moist forests still prevail. The temperate and high latitudes boasted the greatest diversity flora: were common here broadleaf forests, mostly evergreen. As the air became drier, new species appeared, from which the modern flora of the Mediterranean gradually developed (olives, plane trees, Walnut, boxwood, southern pine and cedar). In the north, evergreens no longer survived. On the other hand, coniferous-deciduous forests showed a wealth of species - from sequoia to chestnut. At the end of the Neogene, such landscape forms as taiga, tundra and forest-steppe appeared. Again, this was due to the cold. North America and Northern Eurasia became taiga regions. In temperate latitudes with an arid climate, steppes were formed. Where there used to be savannahs, semi-deserts and deserts arose.

Neogene fauna

It would seem that the Cenozoic era is not so long (in comparison with others): flora and fauna, however, have changed a lot since the beginning of the Paleogene. Placentals became the dominant mammals. At first, the anchitherian and then the hipparion fauna developed. Both are named after characteristic representatives. Anchiterium is the ancestor of the horse, a small animal with three fingers on each limb. Hipparion is, in fact, a horse, but still three-toed. There is no need to think that only relatives of horses and simply ungulates (deer, giraffes, camels, pigs) belonged to the indicated faunas. In fact, among their representatives were predators (hyenas, lions), and rodents, and even ostriches: life in the Cenozoic era was fantastically diverse.

The spread of these animals was facilitated by an increase in the area of ​​savannahs and steppes.

At the end of the Neogene, human ancestors appeared in the forests.

Anthropogenic climate

This period is characterized by alternation of glaciations and warmings. When glaciers advanced, their lower limits reached 40 degrees northern latitude. The largest glaciers of that time were concentrated in Scandinavia, the Alps, North America, Eastern Siberia, the Subpolar and Northern Urals.

In parallel with the glaciations, the sea attacked the land, although not as powerful as in the Paleogene. Interglacial periods were characterized by a mild climate and regression (drying of the seas). Now the next interglacial period is underway, which should end no later than in 1000 years. After it, another glaciation will occur, which will last about 20 thousand years. But it is not known whether this will actually happen, since human intervention in natural processes caused climate warming. It is time to think whether the Cenozoic era will end in a global ecological catastrophe?

Flora and fauna of Anthropogen

The onset of glaciers forced heat-loving plants to shift south. True, it interfered mountain ranges. As a result, many species have not survived to this day. During the glaciations, there were three main types of landscapes: taiga, tundra and forest-steppe with their characteristic plants. Tropical and subtropical belts were greatly narrowed and shifted, but still remained. In the interglacial periods, broad-leaved forests dominated the Earth.

As for the fauna, the supremacy still belonged (and belongs) to mammals. Massive, woolly animals (mammoths, woolly rhinos, megaloceros) have become the hallmark of the ice ages. Along with them there were bears, wolves, deer, lynxes. All animals as a result of cooling and warming were forced to migrate. The primitive and the unadapted were dying out.

Primates also continued their development. The improvement of the hunting skills of human ancestors can explain the extinction of a number of game animals: giant sloths, horses of North America, mammoths.

Results

It is not known when the Cenozoic era, the periods of which we examined above, will end. Sixty-five million years by the standards of the universe is quite a bit. However, during this time, continents, oceans and mountain ranges managed to form. Many species of plants and animals have died out or evolved under the pressure of circumstances. Mammals have taken the place of dinosaurs. And the most promising of the mammals turned out to be man, and the last period of the Cenozoic - the anthropogen - is associated mainly with the activities of people. It is possible that it depends on us how and when the Cenozoic era will end - the most dynamic and shortest of the earth's eras.

The most recent epoch on Earth's timeline is the Cenozoic epoch, an epoch that literally means " New life". This is an era that began 65 million years ago and continues to the present. This era is often referred to by paleontologists as the "age of mammals". However, this is not entirely wrong, because mammals were not the only class of animals that flourished during this era. Birds, insects and flowering plants also prospered, and diversified at this time.

This era can be divided into three distinct periods:

Paleogene period

neogene period

quaternary period.

In turn, these three periods can be divided into seven eras:

Paleocene

Eocene

Oligocene

Miocene

Pliocene

Pleistocene

Holocene

This era is divided into as many subgroups to help scientists study this short period.

The first period of the Cenozoic era was the Paleogene period, which began approximately 66 million years ago and ended 23 million years ago. During this time, the Earth began to recover from a global cataclysm that destroyed almost all life, it is called K-T extinction. It was also the period when the continents began to take on their modern shape. Small mammals began to develop in the jungle, they greatly increased in size. This period includes the Paleocene, Eocene and Oligocene.

The Paleocene epoch lasted about 10 million years (started 66 million years and ended 56 million years). It was during this period that the Earth really tried to recover. This was also the period when the continents separated from each other and the planet began to warm up. This resulted in a significant expansion of the jungle; Some jungle stretched to the poles. In the oceans, large aquatic reptiles died out, and their niche was occupied by sharks. Mammals continued to evolve, but none of the species grew more than 10 kilograms - or about 22 pounds. The Eocene Epoch began 56 million years ago and ended 33.9 million years ago. Mammals continued to evolve during this period, but were still small in size. It was at this time that early primates, horses, and whales began to develop. Birds were at the top of the food chain, birds, the only time birds were taller than dinosaurs. Due to the disruption of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, the Earth began to cool again. This caused the jungle to recede. Mammals began to gain weight and size. Some of them, in fact, were able to reach gigantic proportions - for example, whales.

The Oligocene Epoch began 33.9 million years ago and ended 23 million years ago. During this period, grass began to spread across the planet due to the retreat of the world's jungles. This allowed many new species to evolve. This affected cats, dogs, marsupials and elephants. However, grass was not the only plant species that flourished during this time. Evergreen trees have also found their niche and have begun to spread throughout the world. As this era progresses, mammals will continue to grow.

The next period of the Cenozoic era was the Neogene period, and this period lasted from 23.03 million years ago to about 2.58 million years ago. It can be divided into two main eras. These epochs include the Miocene epoch and the Pliocene epoch. During this period, the growth of various animals began, including Bovids (bovids), large predatory mammals and early primates.

During the Miocene era, which began about 23 million years ago and ended 5.3 million years ago, giant jungles and dense forests began to recede, and grass gradually began to take over their territories. Many species of mammals began to evolve, and these include sea otters and monkeys, which continued to divide into different types. Seed plants also began to flourish during this era, over 90% of modern seed plants evolved during this period.

The Pliocene Epoch began 5 million years ago and ended about 2.58 million years ago. It was at this time in Earth's history that the planet was experiencing dramatic climate change. It was at this time that the first Australopithecus appeared in Africa. It was they who, according to most scientists, became the progenitors of the human species. And, finally, all the continents of the planet have acquired their current outlines.

The last period of the Cenozoic era was the Quaternary, which began 2.58 million years ago and has continued to the present. The Pleistocene epoch (2.58 million years to 11,700 years ago) saw four separate glaciations. It was during this era that Africa began to lose water, which led to the emergence of the Kalahari, Namib and Sahara deserts. At this time, animals such as saber-toothed tigers, cave lions, giant sloths and dire wolves developed. Homo sapiens continued to evolve and, thanks to the end of the drought in Africa, began to spread throughout the world thanks to the terrestrial isthmuses between the continents. Towards the end of this era, a major extinction occurred that killed many of the giant animals of the time.

The Holocene epoch began 11,700 years ago and continues to this day. During most of this time, the climate was fairly stable and the human species spread across the world - developed science and technology to take over the world and develop art, music and poetry. What will this era bring to humanity? No one knows for sure, but it's bound to be a fun ride that's bound to bring even more changes. After all, the Earth is always changing.

Cenozoic or Cenozoic era- last on this moment era of the Earth's geological history. The Cenozoic era continues today. It began 66 million years ago, immediately after, as a result of which all dinosaurs disappeared. When the new era will come is unknown. In order for the Cenozoic era to be replaced by a new era, significant changes must occur in the geological conditions of the planet. In order not to get confused in eras and periods, use for clarity.

Cenozoic periods

The Cenozoic is divided into three periods and seven epochs (departments).

1. or Paleogene period. It lasted from 66 million years ago to 23 million years ago. It is divided into three epochs: Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene.

2. or Neogene period. It lasted from 23 to 2.5 million years ago. It is divided into two epochs: Miocene and Pliocene.

3. or Anthropogenic. It began 2.5 million years ago and continues to this day. It is divided into two epochs: Pleistocene and Holocene.

Life in the Cenozoic

Life in a new era after what happened mass extinction changed drastically. The Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction literally changed the face of the animal kingdom beyond recognition. If in the Mesozoic the rulers of the Earth were giant dinosaur lizards, then in the Cenozoic their place was taken by mammals. After the catastrophe that occurred 66 million years ago, many animals became extinct. The highest survival rate was found in warm-blooded mammals. This is attributed to the fact that as a result of global cooling due to the impact of a giant meteorite on the ground, all cold-blooded, which depend on the ambient temperature, simply froze.

The warm-blooded, who are able to maintain their body temperature, were able to survive the catastrophe, and when all the consequences of the meteorite impact on the ground passed, they found themselves in a completely new world. All the dinosaurs that occupied the main life niches died out completely. Of the reptiles, only lizards, snakes, crocodiles and other small animals remained. This gave the warmbloods endless freedom to evolve. For 66 million years, warm-blooded animals have received a gigantic variety. In addition, small reptiles, fish, marine animals, birds, insects, and plants also received a wide variety. Also at the end of the Cenozoic, a completely new form of life appeared, which changed the whole appearance and way of the planet Earth - a reasonable person.

Cenozoic era documentary:

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IN Paleogene the climate was warm and humid, as a result of which tropical and subtropical plants became widespread. Representatives of the marsupial subclass were widespread here.

The class of insects developed intensively. Among them, highly organized species arose that contributed to cross-pollination of flowering plants and fed on plant nectar. The number of reptiles has decreased. Birds and mammals lived on land and in the air, fish lived in the water, as well as mammals that re-adapted to life in the water. During the Neogene period, many genera of currently known birds appeared.

IN quaternary period there was a repeated displacement of the ice of the Arctic Ocean to the south and back, which was accompanied by cooling and the movement of many heat-loving plants to the south. With the retreat of the ice, they moved to their former places. This re-migration (from lat. migratio - relocation) of plants led to the mixing of populations, the extinction of species not adapted to changing conditions, and contributed to the emergence of other, adapted species.

human evolution

By the beginning of the Quaternary period, the evolution of man is accelerating. The methods of manufacturing tools and their use are being significantly improved. People start to change environment learn to create favorable conditions for themselves. The increase in the number and wide distribution of people began to influence the flora and fauna. Hunting by primitive people leads to a gradual reduction in the number of wild herbivores. The extermination of large herbivores has led to a sharp decrease in the number of cave lions, bears and other large predatory animals that feed on them. Trees were cut down and many forests turned into pastures.