Species of any organisms living in the same territory and in contact with each other enter into different relationships with each other. View position at different forms relationships are denoted by symbols. The minus sign (?) denotes an adverse effect (individuals of the species are oppressed). The plus sign (+) denotes a beneficial effect (individuals of the species benefit). The zero sign (0) indicates that the relationship is indifferent (no influence).

Biotic connections? relationships between different organisms. They can be direct (direct impact) and indirect (indirect). Direct connections are carried out with the direct influence of one organism on another. Indirect links are manifested through the influence on external environment or another kind.

Thus, all biotic bonds can be divided into 6 groups:

1 Neutralism - populations do not affect each other (00);

2a. Protocooperation - populations have mutually beneficial relationships (++) (Interaction with each other is useful for both populations, but is not mandatory);

2c. Mutualism - populations have mutually beneficial relationships (++) (Required interaction, useful for both populations);

3. Competition - relationships are harmful to both species (? ?);

5. Commensalism - one species benefits, the other does not experience harm (+0);

6. Ammensalism - one species is oppressed, the other does not benefit (? 0);

Interaction types

In nature, cohabitation of two or more species is often found, which in some cases becomes necessary for both partners. Such cohabitation is called the symbiotic relationship of organisms (from the combination of sim? together, bio? life) or symbiosis. The term "symbiosis" is general, it refers to cohabitation, a prerequisite of which is living together, a certain degree of cohabitation of organisms.

A classic example of symbiosis are lichens, which are a close mutually beneficial cohabitation mushrooms and algae.

A typical symbiosis is the relationship between termites and single-celled ones living in their intestines? flagella. These protozoa produce an enzyme that breaks down fiber into sugar. Termites do not have their own cellulose-digesting enzymes and would die without symbionts. And flagellates find favorable conditions in the intestines that contribute to their survival. A well-known example of symbiosis? cohabitation of green plants (primarily trees) and fungi.

close mutually beneficial relationship, in which the presence of each of the two partner species becomes mandatory, is called mutualism (++). Such, for example, are the relationships of highly specialized plants for pollination (figs, bathing suit, Datura, orchids) with insect species that pollinate them.

A symbiotic relationship in which one species gains some benefit without harming or benefiting the other is called commensalism (+0). The manifestations of commensalism are diverse, therefore, a number of variants are distinguished in it.

Freeloading? consumption of the host's leftover food. This, for example, is the relationship between lions and hyenas, picking up the remains of half-eaten food, or sharks with sticky fish. Companionship? consumption of different substances or parts of the same food. Example? relationship between various types soil bacteria-saprophytes that process various organic matter from decayed plant residues, and higher plants that consume the mineral salts formed in the process. Housing? the use by one species of others (their bodies, their dwellings) as shelter or dwelling. Is this type of relationship widespread in plants? an example is lianas and epiphytes (orchids, lichens, mosses) that settle directly on the trunks and branches of trees.

In nature, there are also such forms of relationships between species when coexistence is not mandatory for them. These relationships are not symbiotic, although they play an important role in the existence of organisms. An example of mutually beneficial relationships is proto-cooperation (literally: primary cooperation) (++), which can include the spread of seeds of some forest plants by ants or pollination by bees of different meadow plants.

If two or more species use similar ecological resources and live together, there may be competition between them (? ?), or a struggle for possession of the necessary resource. Competition occurs where ecological resources are in short supply, and rivalry inevitably arises between species. At the same time, each species experiences oppression, which negatively affects the growth and survival of organisms, and the number of their populations.

Competition is extremely widespread in nature. For example, plants compete for light, moisture, nutrients soil and, consequently, for the expansion of its territory. Animals fight for food resources and for shelters (if they are in short supply), that is, ultimately, also for territory. Competition weakens in areas with a sparse population represented by a small number of species: for example, in arctic or desert regions there is almost no competition for plants for light.

Predation (+ ?) ? a type of relationship between organisms in which representatives of one species kill and eat representatives of another. Predation? one of the forms of food relations.

If two species do not affect each other, what is it? neutralism (00). In nature, true neutralism is very rare, since indirect interactions are possible between all species, the effect of which we do not see due to the incompleteness of our knowledge.

http://www.gymn415.spb.ruru

Living organisms are related to each other in a certain way. There are the following types of relationships between species:

• trophic,
• topical,
• phoric,
• factory.

The most important are trophic and topical bonds, since it is they that keep organisms different types next to each other, uniting them into communities.

Trophic connections arise between species when one species feeds on another: living individuals, dead remains, waste products. Trophic communication can be direct and indirect. direct connection manifests itself when lions feed on live antelopes, hyenas on the corpses of zebras, dung beetles on the droppings of large ungulates, etc. Indirect connection occurs when different species compete for the same food resource.

Topical connections are manifested in the change by one species of the living conditions of another species. For example, under a coniferous forest, as a rule, there is no grass cover.

Foric connections occur when one species participates in the distribution of another species. The transfer of seeds, spores, and pollen by animals is called zoochory, and small individuals - phoresia.

factory connections consist in the fact that one species uses excretory products, dead remains, or even living individuals of another species for its structures. For example, when building nests, birds use tree branches, grass, down and feathers of other birds.

Types of relationships between organisms

The impact of one species on another can be positive, negative or neutral. In this case, different combinations of types of influence are possible. Distinguish:

Neutralism- the cohabitation of two species in the same territory, which has neither positive nor negative consequences for them. For example, squirrels and moose do not have significant effects on each other.

Protocooperation- mutually beneficial, but not mandatory, coexistence of organisms, from which all participants benefit. For example, hermit crabs and sea anemones. A coral anemone polyp can settle on the crayfish shell, which has stinging cells that secrete poison. Anemone protects against cancer predatory fish, and the hermit crab, moving, contributes to the spread of sea anemones and increase their feeding space.

Mutualism (obligate symbiosis) - mutually beneficial cohabitation, when either one of the partners, or both cannot exist without a cohabitant. For example, herbivorous ungulates and cellulose-destroying bacteria. Cellulose-destroying bacteria live in the stomach and intestines of herbivorous ungulates. They produce enzymes that break down cellulose, so herbivores who do not have such enzymes are required. Herbivorous ungulates, for their part, provide bacteria with nutrients and habitat with optimal temperature, humidity, etc.

Commensalism- a relationship in which one of the partners benefits from cohabitation, and the presence of the first is indifferent to the other. There are two forms of commensalism: synoikia (lodging) And trophobiosis (freeloading). An example of synoikia is the relationship between some sea anemones and tropical fish. Tropical fish hide from predators among the tentacles of anemones, which have stinging cells. An example of trophobiosis is the relationship between large predators and scavengers. Scavengers, such as hyenas, vultures, jackals, feed on the remains of victims killed and partially eaten by large predators - lions.

Predation- a relationship in which one of the participants (the predator) kills the other (the victim) and uses it as food. For example, wolves and hares. The state of the predator population is closely related to the state of the prey population. However, when the population of one species of prey decreases, the predator switches to another species. For example, wolves can use hares, mice, wild boars, roe deer, frogs, insects, etc. as food.

A special case of predation is cannibalism- killing and eating their own kind. Occurs, for example, in rats, brown bears, human.

Competition- relationships in which organisms compete with each other for the same resources of the external environment with a lack of the latter. Organisms can compete for food resources, sexual partners, shelter, light, and so on. There are direct and indirect, intraspecific and interspecific competition. Indirect (passive) competition—consumption of environmental resources required by both species. Direct (active) competition- the suppression of one species by another. intraspecific competition- rivalry between individuals of the same species. Interspecific competition occurs between individuals of different, but ecologically close species. Its result can be either mutual accommodation two types, or substitution a population of one species a population of another species that moves to another place, switches to another food or dies out.

Competition leads to natural selection in the direction of increasing ecological differences between competing species and the formation of different ecological niches by them.

Amensalism- relationships in which one organism affects another and suppresses its vital activity, but itself does not experience any negative influences from the side of the oppressed. For example, spruce and plants of the lower tier. The dense crown of spruce prevents the penetration of sunlight under the forest canopy and inhibits the development of plants of the lower tier.

A special case of amensalism is allelopathy (antibiosis)- the influence of one organism on another, in which the waste products of one organism are released into the external environment, poisoning it and making it unsuitable for the life of another. Allelopathy is common in plants, fungi, bacteria. For example, a penicillium fungus produces substances that suppress the vital activity of bacteria. Penicillium is used to produce penicillin, the first antibiotic discovered in medicine. IN Lately the concept of "allelopathy" includes a positive impact.

In the course of evolution and development of ecosystems, there is a tendency to reduce the role of negative interactions at the expense of positive ones, which increase the survival of both species. Therefore, in mature ecosystems, the proportion of strong negative interactions is less than in young ones.

The characteristics of the types of interaction between populations of different species are also given in the table:

Notes:

1. (0) - there is no significant interaction between populations.
2. (+) - beneficial effect on growth, survival or other characteristics of the population.
3. (-) - inhibitory effect on growth or other characteristics of the population.
4. Types 2-4 can be considered "negative interactions", 7-9 "positive interactions", and types 5 and 6 can be classified as both.

Tests in the discipline "Ecology and basics of life safety"

1. The term "ecology" is translated from Greek as the science of.............

e) about the house, dwelling

In what year was the term "ecology" introduced?

Which of the scientists first proposed the term "ecology" .........

b) E. Haeckel

Select the scientists with whom the second stage of the development of ecology is associated (after the 60s of the XIX century - the 50s of the XX century.

e) K.F. Rulye, N.A. Severtsov, V.V. Dokuchaev

5. What does ecology study:

d) the laws of existence (functioning) of living systems in their interaction with environment.

The subject of ecology research are

f) biological macrosystems and their dynamics in time and space

Three main areas of ecology:

d) Autecology, synecology, de-ecology.

When did ecology finally take shape as an independent science?

d) at the beginning of the twentieth century

What branch of ecology studies the interaction of geophysical conditions of life and factors of the inanimate environment ...

e) geoecology

13. The interaction between individual organisms and environmental factors studies the section of ecology ....

a) Autecology

14. The section of ecology that studies the relationship of a population with their environment is called:

a) demoecology

Synecology studies

d) community ecology

16. The shell of the Earth inhabited by living organisms is called:

a) biosphere

17. A group of organisms with a similar external and internal structure, living in the same territory and giving fertile offspring is called:

a) population

The level at which a natural system was formed, covering all manifestations of life within our planet is called .....

c) biospheric

A set of pelagic actively moving animals that do not have a direct connection with the bottom. Represented mainly by large animals that are able to overcome long distances and strong water currents.

20. The totality of pelagic organisms that do not have the ability for rapid active movement:

21. The totality of organisms living at a depth (on the ground or in it) of water bodies:

b) Plankton

What levels of organization of living systems belong to a microsystem .....

a) molecular, cellular

23. Abiotic conditions that determine the field of existence of life:

a) oxygen and carbon dioxide

Which factor is not abiotic?

c) development Agriculture

25. Plant communities are called:

e) phytocenosis

26. According to the type of nutrition, green plants and photosynthetic bacteria are:

a) Autotrophs.

27. Organisms permanently living in the soil:

a) Geobands

28. Reducers are:

a) bacteria and fungi

29. Organisms producing organic substances are called:

b) producers

The main source of oxygen to the atmosphere

d) plants

31. Organisms with a mixed type of nutrition:

e) Mixotrophs.

32. Light-loving plants:

b) Heliophytes

33. Shade-loving plants:

e) Sciophytes.

34. Plants growing in conditions of high humidity:

a) Hygrophytes.

35. Adaptation of organisms develops with the help of:

c) Variation, heredity and natural selection.

36. Types of adaptation of organisms:

d) Morphological, ethological, physiological.

37. What is photoperiodism…..

a) Adjustment to the length of the day;

38. What factors limit during some process, phenomenon or existence of an organism: a) Limiting.

39. Environmental factors are divided into:

a) Abiotic, biotic, anthropogenic.

40. What is the limiting factor in water….

d) Oxygen.

41. The microbiogenic biotic factor of the environment includes:

b) Microbes and viruses.

What law states that the endurance of an organism is determined by

the weakest link in the chain of its environmental needs:

d) Liebig's Law of the Minimum.

When was the law of "tolerance" discovered?

44. Which of the scientists discovered the maximum law:

c) W. Shelford.

45. The law of the minimum discovered:

e) J. Liebig.

Two species cannot sustainably exist in a limited space if the growth of both is limited by one vital resource, the quantity and availability of which is limited.

b) Gause's law

What law testifies that the endurance of an organism is determined by the weakest link in the chain of its ecological needs.......

c) Gause's law (rule of competitive exclusion)

48. In 1903, V. Johansen introduced the term ....

d) population

What is population homeostasis.

d) Population stability;

50. Types of population growth are:

e) Exponential and logistic.

51. The territory occupied by a population is called:

52. Population size is:

e) The number of individuals included in it.

53. Define the ecological density of a population:

b) the average number of individuals per unit area or volume occupied by a population of space

What is called biocenosis ..

a) A deeply regular combination of organisms under certain environmental conditions.

Which of the scientists introduced the concept of "biocenosis" .......

B)K. Moebius

56. The term "biocenosis" was introduced:

What characterizes the layering of the biocenosis ..

d) Spatial structure

58. What is a habitat…

a) The entire environment surrounding a living organism;

59. Pollution natural environment living organisms that cause various diseases in humans are called:

a) Radioactive.

60. The totality of abiotic factors within a homogeneous area is ..."

61. What is the name of the last formations of a relatively stable stage of change of biocenoses, which are in equilibrium with the environment ...

d) Successions;

62. What is the name of the community of animals in ecosystems ....

a) Biocenosis;

Biogeocenosis is

c) a group of animals and plants living in the same area

64. What is amensalism….

b) Inhibition of the growth of one species by the products of the excretion of another;

65. What is competition….

d) Suppression of some species by others in biocenoses;

66. This form of relations between species, in which the consumer organism uses a living host not only as a source of food, but also as a place of permanent or temporary residence ....

c) Commensalism

67. Mutualism is….

b) Mutually beneficial cooperation;

68. Commensalism is….

b) Beneficial for one and not beneficial for another relationship;

69. The normal existence of two species that do not interfere with each other is……

d) Neutralism;

70. The coexistence of invertebrates in a rodent hole is called ..

c) lodging;

71. Organisms of one species exist at the expense of nutrients or tissues of other organisms. This form of communication is called:

72. An ecological niche is:

e) + The totality of living conditions within an ecological system.

73. Individuals of one species eat individuals of another species. This relationship is called:

c) predation

A joint, mutually beneficial existence individuals of 2 or more than 2 species are called:

b) symbiosis

75. The ecological niche of organisms is determined by:

e) + the whole set of conditions of existence

76. Concept ecological niche applicable to:

b) plants

77. Organisms with a mixed type of nutrition:

Detailed solution paragraph § 77 in biology for students of grade 10, authors Kamensky A.A., Kriksunov E.A., Pasechnik V.V. 2014

• Gdz workbook in Biology for grade 10 can be found

1. What biotic environmental factors do you know?

2. What types of competition do you know?

Answer. Competition - in biology, any antagonistic relationship associated with the struggle for existence, for dominance, for food, space and other resources between organisms, species or populations of species that need the same resources.

Intraspecific competition is competition between members of one or more populations of a species. Goes for resources, intra-group dominance, females/males, etc.

Interspecific competition is competition between populations of different species of non-adjacent trophic levels in a biocenosis. It is due to the fact that representatives of different species jointly use the same resources, which are usually limited. Resources can be either food (for example, the same types of prey for predators or plants for phytophages), or of another kind, for example, the availability of places for breeding, shelters for protection from enemies, etc. Species can also compete for dominance in the ecosystem. There are two forms of competitive relationships: direct competition (interference) and indirect (exploitation). With direct competition between populations of species in a biocenosis, antagonistic relationships (antibiosis) develop evolutionarily, expressed by various types of mutual oppression (fights, blocking access to a resource, allelopathy, etc.). With indirect competition, one of the species monopolizes a resource or habitat, while worsening the conditions for the existence of a competitive species in a similar ecological niche.

Both evolutionarily (taxonomically) close species and representatives of very distant groups can compete in nature. For example, ground squirrels in the dry steppe eat up to 40% of plant growth. This means that pastures can support fewer saigas or sheep. And during the years of mass reproduction of locusts, neither gophers nor sheep have enough food.

3. What is symbiosis?

Usually, symbiosis is mutualistic, that is, the cohabitation of both organisms (symbionts) is mutually beneficial and arises in the process of evolution as one of the forms of adaptation to the conditions of existence. Symbiosis can be carried out both at the level of multicellular organisms and at the level of individual cells (intracellular symbiosis). Plants with plants, plants with animals, animals with animals, plants and animals with microorganisms, microorganisms with microorganisms can enter into symbiotic relationships. The term "symbiosis" was first introduced by the German botanist A. de Bari (1879) as applied to lichens. A striking example of symbiosis among plants is mycorrhiza - the cohabitation of the mycelium of a fungus with the roots of a higher plant (hyphae braid the roots and contribute to the flow of water and minerals from the soil into them); some orchids cannot grow without mycorrhiza.

Nature knows numerous examples of symbiotic relationships from which both partners benefit. For example, the symbiosis between leguminous plants and soil bacteria Rhizobium is extremely important for the nitrogen cycle in nature. These bacteria - they are also called nitrogen-fixing - settle on the roots of plants and have the ability to "fix" nitrogen, that is, to break down strong bonds between the atoms of atmospheric free nitrogen, making it possible to incorporate nitrogen into plant-available compounds, such as ammonia. In this case, the mutual benefit is obvious: the roots are the habitat of bacteria, and the bacteria supply the plant with the necessary nutrients.

There are also numerous examples of symbiosis that is beneficial to one species and does not bring any benefit or harm to another species. For example, the human intestine is inhabited by many types of bacteria, the presence of which is harmless to humans. Similarly, plants called bromeliads (which include, for example, pineapple) live on the branches of trees, but get their nutrients from the air. These plants use the tree for support without depriving it of nutrients.

A type of symbiosis is endosymbiosis, when one of the partners lives inside the cell of the other.

The science of symbiosis is symbiology.

Questions after § 77

1. What examples of positive and negative interactions do you know between organisms of different species?

2. What is the essence of the "predator-prey" relationship?

Answer. Predation (+ -) is a type of relationship between populations in which representatives of one species eat (destroy) representatives of another, i.e., the organisms of one population serve as food for the organisms of another. The predator usually catches and kills its prey itself, after which it eats it in whole or in part. Such predators are characterized by hunting behavior. But besides hunter-predators, there is also a large group of predator-gatherers whose way of feeding is simply to search for and collect prey. Such, for example, are many insectivorous birds that gather food on the ground, in grass or on trees.

Predation is a widespread form of communication, not only between animals, but also between plants and animals. So, herbivory (eating plants by animals), in essence, is also predation; on the other hand, a number of insectivorous plants (dew, nepenthes) can also be classified as predators.

However, in a narrow, ecological sense, it is customary to consider only the eating of animals by animals as predation.

4. What are the most famous examples of symbiotic relationships that you know of?

Answer. A symbiotic relationship in which there is a stable mutually beneficial cohabitation of two organisms of different species is called mutualism. Such, for example, are the relationships between the hermit crab and sea anemones or highly specialized plants for pollination with insect species pollinating them (clover and bumblebee). The nutcracker, feeding only on the seeds (nuts) of the cedar pine, is the only distributor of its seeds. Mutualism is very widely developed in nature.

5. How do you understand mutualism and symbiosis?

This term has other meanings, see Competition. Competition in biology, any antagonistic relationship associated with the struggle for existence, for dominance, for food, space and other resources between organisms or species ... Wikipedia

- (from Latin mensa meal) a type of interspecific relationship in which one species, called amensal, undergoes growth and development inhibition, and the second, called an inhibitor, is not subject to such tests. Antibiosis and ... ... Wikipedia

- (from Latin com “with”, “together” and mensa “table”, “meal”; literally “at the table”, “at the same table”; earlier companionship) a way of coexistence (symbiosis) of two different types of living organisms, in which one population benefits ... Wikipedia

- (from other Greek ἀντι against, βίος life) antagonistic relations of species, when one organism limits the capabilities of another, the impossibility of coexistence of organisms, for example, due to intoxication by some organisms (antibiotics, ... ... Wikipedia

This term has other meanings, see Symbiosis (meanings). clown fish and sea ​​anemone organisms coexisting in mutualistic symbiosis ... Wikipedia

- (Late Lat. organismus from Late Lat. organizo I arrange, I give a slender appearance, from other Greek ὄργανον a tool) a living body that has a set of properties that distinguish it from inanimate matter. As a separate individual organism ... ... Wikipedia

"Predator" redirects here; see also other meanings. "Predators" redirects here; see also other meanings ... Wikipedia

Between two ants of the species Oecophylla longinoda. Thailand. Trophallaxis ... Wikipedia

Co-evolution of biological species interacting in an ecosystem. Changes that affect any traits of individuals of one species lead to changes in another or other species. The first to introduce the concept of co-evolution was N. V. Timofeev Resovsky ... ... Wikipedia

This article or section has a list of sources or external links, but the sources of individual statements remain unclear due to the lack of footnotes ... Wikipedia

Books

• Semiotic theory of biological life, N. A. Zarenkov. Is it possible to understand what life is, limited to the study of the flesh of organisms - the signs of life: molecules, chromosomes, cells, tissues and organs? This book substantiates the negative answer to ...