Features of the new imperialism in different parts of the world. The main features of imperialism. Interaction of the financial elite with the government

Belarusian State University

History department

Department of Modern and Contemporary Times

Abstract on the topic:

Monopoly capitalism:

essence and main features. Imperialism

Prepared by:

4th year student, 3 groups

Sidorenko V.

Minsk, 2003

Monopoly capitalism: essence and main features. Imperialism

Industrialization contributed to the concentration (expansion) and centralization (unification) of production and capital. During the years of the second industrial revolution, priority was given to the newest branches of heavy industry, which became the basis for the economy. By their own technical specifications these were complex and large-scale industries with a continuous technological cycle (for example, steel production). The widespread introduction of the latest technical achievements and the conveyor system into production, the standardization of products, the creation of a new energy base, and an extensive transport infrastructure ensured high profitability for large enterprises. At the same time, large-scale productions were characterized by high capital intensity. This limited their ability further development because it exceeded the capacity of individual entrepreneurs. In this regard, at the time under review, the process of creating joint-stock companies (corporations) began. They were enterprises accumulating individual capital and personal savings through the issuance of shares, giving the right to their owners to receive part of the income - a dividend. Thus, along with the individual, a collective form of private property appears. Bernal, D. Science in the history of society. M., 1956. S. 28.

The mass creation of joint-stock companies unfolded in the Western countries in the last third of the 19th century, primarily in the newest industries where large amounts of advanced capital were required (electrical, machine-building, chemical, transport). This process became decisive in the economic development of Western countries in the late XIX - early XX century. It has reached a particularly large scale in the United States and in the countries of the "second echelon", primarily in Germany. For example, in the USA, almost 1/2 of all industrial production was in the hands of 1/100 total number enterprises. On the basis of a high degree of concentration of production and centralization of capital, the process of formation of monopolies began. Monopolies are agreements, agreements regarding a single market strategy (price level, division of sales markets and sources of raw materials), concluded in order to ensure dominance in the market and obtain super profits Braudel, F. Dynamics of capitalism. Smolensk, 1993. S. 15.

The emergence of monopolies is the main feature of the new stage in the development of capitalism, and in this connection it is designated as monopoly. The tendency towards monopoly domination of the market is inherent in the very nature of capitalism. As F. Braudel notes, capitalism has always been monopoly. The pursuit of high profits implies fierce competition, the struggle for a dominant position, for a monopoly in the market. However, at the previous stages of the development of a market economy (XV-XVIII centuries), monopolies of a different type were created - “closed”, protected by legal restrictions, and “natural”, arising due to the specifics of the use of certain resources. "Closed" and "natural" monopolies existed in the capitalist economy permanently, more as a single phenomenon, which practically ruled out their dominance. The domination of monopolies was also impossible at the stage of "classical capitalism": with a huge number of independent enterprises in each industry, there was no tangible superiority of one enterprise over another, and free competition was the only law of their existence and survival.

In the conditions of the industrial economy, a new type of "open" monopolistic associations arose. They were generated by the very elements of the market, the logic of competition. At a certain stage in the development of capitalism, an alternative arose for entrepreneurs: either the development of exhausting competition, or the coordination among themselves of the most important areas of production and market activity. The first option was extremely risky, the second - in fact, the only acceptable one. A high degree of concentration of production determined both the possibility and the need to coordinate the marketing and output of products by leading manufacturers. The opportunity was created by the actual enlargement of production, which reduced the number of competing enterprises and facilitated the process of coordinating the policy of manufacturers in the market. The need was generated by the vulnerability of large capital-intensive enterprises, primarily heavy industry - metallurgical, machine-building, mining, oil refining. They could not quickly respond to market conditions and, in this regard, they needed stability, special guarantees of competitiveness. It was in these sectors that the first monopolies appeared. Braudel, F. Material civilization, economics and capitalism. XV-XVIII centuries M., 1986--1992. T. 1--3.

Thus, unfolding in the late XIX - early XX century. monopolization was a consequence of the development of the process of concentration and centralization of production and capital, the further complication of economic ties. The emergence of open monopolies reflected the formation of a special model for the organization of production, the transition of the capitalist economy to the monopoly stage.

At the time under review, monopolistic associations were formed, as a rule, within the same industry (horizontal integration), various industry monopolies arose. They were mainly cartels, syndicates and trusts. A cartel is the lowest form of monopolistic associations, which is an agreement between independent enterprises of one industry on prices, sales markets, production quotas for all participants, and the exchange of patents. A syndicate is a stage of monopolization, in which the enterprises of the industry, while maintaining legal and industrial independence, unite their commercial activities and create single offices for the sale of products. A trust is a higher form of monopolies, where both marketing and production are combined, enterprises are subject to a single management, retaining only their financial independence. This is a single giant association that dominates the industry. The highest form of monopolization at the beginning of the 20th century was the concern. Such a monopoly was usually created in related industries, differed by a single financial system and market strategy. The concern often retained production independence, but the integration of capital ensured the closest ties compared to other forms of monopoly associations. Depending on national specifics economic development, the level of concentration of production and the centralization of capital, various forms of monopolistic unions have become widespread in individual countries. Thus, cartels took a leading position in the German economy, syndicates - in France and Russia, trusts - in the USA. Concerns became more widespread later, from the beginning of the 20th century. Attention should be paid to the peculiarities of the process of monopolization in the countries of the "second echelon". Forced modernization here was accompanied by the creation of a highly concentrated industry. This contributed to the rapid and widespread monopolization of the economic system and the creation of the largest monopolies. German history into new and modern times: in 2 t. M., 1970. T. 1. S. 21-22.

1860s were the ultimate stage in the development of free competition. The first monopolies began to be created after the economic crises of 1873 and 1882. Since that time, a new type of market relations has been formed, in which free competition turns into monopolistic. In the last third of the XIX century. monopolies were still fragile and often had a temporary character. Only at the beginning of the XX century. after the economic crisis of 1900-1903, which led to a new wave of bankruptcies, monopolization assumed wide scope, mass production became dominant in industry. Now monopolies began to be created in the traditional industries that formed the basis of "classical capitalism", including agriculture. This contributed to the completion of the transition to monopoly capitalism. As a result, a special economic model focused primarily on the development of mass production. Such a strategy for the development of production led to a sharp increase in the rate of economic growth in Western countries. So, from 1903 to 1907. the total capacity of industrial production increased by 40--50%. Thus, at the beginning of the XX century. the mechanism of monopolistic competition and the system of mass production have become decisive in economic system Western countries Erofeev, N. A. Essays on the history of England (1815--1917). M., 1959. S. 34. .

The dominance of monopolies has not eliminated competition, which is the main driving force market economy. However, under the conditions of monopoly capitalism, it has become much more complicated. Now the rivalry between the big monopolies within individual industries, national economies, and on the scale of the entire world economy has acquired decisive importance. After the crisis of 1900-1903, when the share of the monopolized sector in the economies of the leading Western countries sharply increased, intra-industry competition was significantly limited. However, the absolute dominance of monopolies within entire industries was an exception. Basically, a situation developed when several leading monopoly groups fought for control over the industry market. This model is called an oligopoly. In addition, there was a fierce struggle between the monopolies and the non-monopoly sector, the “outsiders”. At the same time, the activity of monopolies, as powerful producers with the latest technological base, deformed pricing, disrupted the balance of supply and demand. In such a situation, small and medium-sized non-monopolized enterprises often went bankrupt, especially during periods of economic crises. In general, the monopolization of the economy blocked the natural mechanisms of market self-regulation and made it much more difficult to overcome the crisis.

Large-scale production needed large loans, often unsustainable for individual banks. In this regard, the banking sector embraced the process of centralization: in the late XIX - early XX century. and here the creation of joint-stock companies and monopolies became widespread. Accordingly, the role of banks has changed markedly: from modest intermediaries in payments, they turned into all-powerful financial monopolies that control the production sector. The Frankfurt Gazette, which represented stock exchange interests, noted at that time: “As the concentration of banks grows, the circle of institutions to which one can generally apply for a loan narrows, which increases the dependence of large industry on a few banking groups. With the close connection between industry and the world of financiers, the freedom of movement of industrial societies in need of banking capital is constrained. Therefore, large-scale industry looks at the growing trusting of banks with mixed feelings. Lenin, V.I. Imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism. M., 1977. S. 11. .

The new role of banks naturally assumed their close interaction with industry, the merging of banking and industrial capital. The noted process took place both through the ownership of shares, and through the entry of bank directors into members of the supervisory boards of commercial and industrial enterprises and vice versa. For example, in 1910, 6 Berlin banks through their board members were represented in 751 industrial companies, and 51 largest industrialists were on the supervisory boards of the same banks. The merging of banking monopolies with industrial monopolies led to the formation of a new form of functioning of capital - the financial-industrial group (according to Marxist terminology - finance capital). If pre-monopoly capitalism is characterized by the differentiation of capital into 3 types - commercial, loan and industrial, then at its monopoly stage a single form is formed. Thus, the financial and industrial group ( financial capital) is banking monopoly capital fused into single system with production (industrial or agricultural) monopoly capital. As a result, grandiose banking and industrial empires, powerful dynasties of steel, oil, newspaper and other kings were formed. In the period under review, financial and industrial groups were, as a rule, family-dynastic in nature: the Morgans, the Rockefellers, the Du Ponts, the Rothschilds and others Ivanyan, E.A. History of the USA / E.A. Ivanyan. M., 2004. S. 26. .

The financial and industrial groups were personified by the financial oligarchy, the new capitalist elite, which consisted of the top of the monopoly bourgeoisie and the leading managers of the largest corporations. During the period of “classical capitalism”, the top of bourgeois society was represented by the old landed aristocracy, and the bourgeoisie, although it belonged to the ruling class, only participated in power. Now, at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. finally formed the elite of bourgeois society - the financial oligarchy.

As a result of the concentration of production and capital, the monopolies acquired enormous wealth and, accordingly, enormous power over national economy and society as a whole. For example, the first trust in US history - the Rockefeller Standard Oil Company - was created in 1879, and in the 1880s. he already controlled about 90% of the country's oil enterprises. In Germany during the same period, 85% of steel production was under the control of the "Union of magnates of the Ruhr and Saar", only 2 enterprises each dominated the German electrical and chemical industries. Monopolies had a significant impact on the socio-political development of society, they also formed the style of consumption. It was at this stage that a consumer society was formed - a society focused on material values.

With the development of machine production, the international division of labor deepened, the interdependence of countries increased, and the exchange of goods on the world market increased. The process of monopolization caused a new round in the expansion of international economic ties. The model of mass production has turned the entire world space into a single potential market for the economies of the leading powers. This testified to the completion of the formation of the world capitalist economy in the late XIX - early XX century. With the advent of the domination of monopolies, new important signs appeared in the development of world economic relations. First of all, it is the wide scope of the export of capital. In the pre-monopoly period, the most typical export was the export of goods, now the export of capital has become a more profitable type of export, which formed a single world financial market. Only in the first 13 years of the XX century. the volume of foreign investments of the leading Western countries has doubled. F. Braudel considers the export of capital in the context of center-periphery relations: “As long as capitalism remains capitalism, the excess of capital is used not to raise the standard of living of the masses in a given country, because this would be a decrease in the profits of the capitalists, but to increase profits by exporting capital abroad in backward countries. In these backward countries profits are usually high, because capital is scarce, the price of land is comparatively low, wages are low, and raw materials are cheap. The possibility of exporting capital is created by the fact that a number of backward countries have already been drawn into the circulation of world capitalism, the main lines of railways, elementary conditions for the development of industry, etc. are provided. Thus, the export of capital is due to the desire of the monopolies for a more profitable investment of capital.

As the export of capital grows, the foreign ties of national monopolies expand, and the consequence of this is another new external economic sign of capitalism—the formation of international monopolies. The latter are monopoly associations that dominate a particular industry and divide among themselves world sales markets, sources of raw materials and areas of capital investment, that is, they carry out the economic division of the world. Their emergence is quite natural: the emergence of the largest monopolies, striving to obtain the greatest profits, on the one hand, and intense competition between them, on the other, made agreements between these giants inevitable. In this regard, at the end of the XIX century. the first international associations began to be created: the International Syndicate for the Sale of Steel Rails (1883), the North Atlantic Steamboat Union (1892), the International Dynamite Cartel (1896). In the first decade of the XX century. the formation of international monopolies has already assumed a wide scope. The export of capital and the formation of international monopolies led to the division of the world market into spheres of influence between the financial groupings of the leading powers. Manykin, A.S. Modern and recent history of Europe and America. M., 2004. S. 7. .

The economic division of the world is carried out in accordance with the economic power of national monopolies. At the same time, the natural unevenness of the economic development of countries associated with various circumstances of internal and external character, can change the ratio of the economic potentials of monopoly groupings. In this regard, the third new sign of capitalism, already to a greater extent of a foreign policy order, is indicated - the intensification of the struggle between national monopolies, leading to the territorial division and redivision of the world between the great powers. This situation arose, firstly, from the very nature of the monopolies, striving for undivided dominance in the market, and secondly, from the nature of the still young monopolies, which had an imperfect structure. They operated, as a rule, within the same industry and therefore were very inflexible and vulnerable. In the event of an unfavorable market situation, the sectoral monopolies were unable to maneuver by pumping capital into the most profitable industries. In this regard, they needed additional guarantees. The latter were maximally provided with a territorial, i.e., political division of the world between countries. Thus, the dominance of monopolies in the economy inevitably gave rise to their desire for political domination in order to strengthen their influence in the conquered territories.

The struggle between national monopolies for the territorial division of the world was expressed, first of all, in the toughening of the struggle for colonies and spheres of influence. At the same time, at the time under review, it acquired a new quality - the goal of capturing the colonies was no longer only their economic exploitation, but also blocking the possible strengthening of the positions of other powers. As a result, expansion also spread to hard-to-reach, sparsely populated territories. At the turn of the century, the still free spaces of the African and Pacific regions were practically divided. By the beginning of the XX century. the colonial seizure of unoccupied lands was completed - therefore, the territorial division of the world between the great powers was completed. This led to a new round of struggle - for the redistribution of already established spheres of influence and the redistribution of the already divided world. Such a situation greatly increased the likelihood of the use of force in the policy of the great powers, the outbreak of wars. This was evidenced by the international situation late XIX- the beginning of the 20th century: acute conflicts between the leading powers did not stop until the First World War Loiberg, M.Ya. History of the economy. M., 1997. .

At the end of the XIX century. on the pages of scientific and popular publications, in the press, the concept of "imperialism" (from Latin imperium - power, domination) began to be encountered quite often. Researchers and publicists of that time unanimously emphasized the expansionist nature of capitalism and in this connection defined it as "imperialism". Thus, the French historian J.-E. Drio in 1900 noted: “During recent years All free places on earth, with the exception of China, are occupied by the powers of Europe and North America. Several conflicts and shifts of influence have already taken place on this basis, which are a harbinger of more terrible explosions in the near future. For one has to hurry: nations that have not provided for themselves risk never getting their part and not taking part in that gigantic exploitation of the land, which will be one of the most essential facts of the next (i.e., XX) century. That is why the whole of Europe and America were covered in Lately the fever of colonial expansion, the "imperialism" which is the most remarkable feature of the late nineteenth century." The English economist J. Hobson in his work "Imperialism" (1902) subjected this period to a deep analysis and designated 1880-1900. as an era of increased expansion (expansion of territory) of the main European states: “At the end of the 19th century. especially since the 1880s, there has been a pursuit of colonies by all the capitalist powers. Colonial possessions expanded after 1876 on a gigantic scale: more than one and a half times. Three powers did not have any colonies in 1876 (Germany, USA, Japan), and the fourth, France, had almost none. ... By 1914, these four powers had acquired colonies of 14.1 million km2 ... with a population of almost 100 million. The unevenness in the expansion of colonial possession is very great. Thus, contemporaries considered imperialism, first of all, as a policy of wide expansion pursued by the leading powers in the late XIX - early XX in Mayevsky, V.I. Kondratieff cycles, economic evolution and economic genetics. M., 1994. .

Modern historical science defines the phenomenon of imperialism more broadly, based on the essence of the imperialism formed at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. a special economic model focused on the abstract mass market, the achievement of undivided financial power, unlimited economic growth. In this regard, imperialism is a period in the development of industrial civilization and monopoly capitalism, characterized by the total expansion of the industrial system. His chronological framework cover the last third of the 19th century. -- 20s 20th century The defining feature of imperialism was expressed in the desire of the leading countries for broad territorial conquests. At the turn of the XIX - XX centuries. the first imperialist wars took place between the major colonial powers for the redistribution of the already divided world: the Spanish-American (1898) and the Anglo-Boer (1899-1902).

List of sources and literature

1. Bernal, D. Science in the history of society. M., 1956.

2. Braudel, F. Material civilization, economy and capitalism. XV-XVIII centuries M., 1986--1992. T. 1--3.

3. Braudel, F. Dynamics of capitalism. Smolensk, 1993.

4. Vipper, R.Yu. The history of the new time / R. Yu. Vipper. Kyiv, 1997.

5. German history in modern and modern times: in 2 vols. M., 1970. T. 1.

6. Erofeev, N.A. Essays on the history of England (1815-1917). M., 1959.

7. Erofeev, N.A. Industrial Revolution in England. M., 1965.

8. Ivanyan, E.A. History of the USA / E. A. Ivanyan. M., 2004.

9. Lenin, V.I. Imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism. M., 1977.

10. Loiberg, M.Ya. History of the economy. M., 1997.

11. Maevsky, V.I. Kondratieff cycles, economic evolution and economic genetics. M., 1994.

12. Manykin, A.S. Modern and recent history of Europe and America. M., 2004.

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2. Align

Imperialism

The formation of the world systemeconomy on the basis of the expansion of European capitaloften carried out by violent means. At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. completed the process of creatingcolonial empires.

They became the main sign of the big powers - Great Britain, France, Germany, USA, Russia, Japan.

These new phenomena in the development of countries served as the basis for the creation of various economic and political theories, sought to explain what is happening in the world.

English economist J. Gobon in the book "Imperialism" (1902) described the new features of capitalism. Vin noted that England began to profit from the export of capital 5 times more than from the export of goods. He also concluded that financiers also seek political dictatorship in countries where there are profitable investments. Banks, without making any effort to develop industry, received significant profits by providing loans to other states. Foreign policy England and France contributed to the provision of markets for profitable investment. So, colonial expansion was directly connected with the growth of industrial groups (monopolies) into creditor states.

The German Social Democrat R. Hilferding and the Russian Social Democrat V. Lenin sought to expand the understanding of the essence of imperialism. The latter, in particular, concluded that imperialism is the highest and last stage of capitalism, when the uneven development of states is especially intensified and their aggressiveness grows. He formulated the main features of imperialism:

Combination of free competition and monopoly;

The merger of industrial and banking capital and the formation of a financial oligarchy;

Territorial and economic division of the world;

Preferential export of capital;

Establishment of close ties between financial capital and the state.

In full, these signs were inherent only to a group of large states. In addition, the market economy revealed a significant potential for adaptation to changing conditions of life, and the period of imperialist expansion did not become the last stage in the development of a market economy. But Lenin, not wanting to correct his conclusions according to the realities of life, used them to justify the need for a revolution in Russia, as "a weak chain of imperialist states."

So, at the end of the XIX century. completed the process of formation of an industrial society in the countries of Western and Central Europe and North America. These countries formed a zone of "advanced development", the so-called first echelon.

Southern, Southeastern and Eastern Europe, Russia, Japan, which also took the path of industrial development, belonged to the second echelon

The rest of the countries were economically backward and needed to carry out the modernization of the economy. Their traditional mode of production did not ensure progress. From this point of view, one can speak of certain positive features of colonialism, which destroyed the old, traditional economy and included the colonies in the then progressive economic process. Subsequently, this accelerateddevelopment, albeit one-sided, backward regions.

Industrialization contributed to the concentration (expansion) and centralization (unification) of production and capital.

During the years of the second industrial revolution, priority was given to the newest branches of heavy industry, which became the basis for the economy. According to their technical characteristics, these were complex and large-scale industries with a continuous technological cycle (for example, steel production). The widespread introduction of the latest technical achievements and the conveyor system into production, the standardization of products, the creation of a new energy base, and an extensive transport infrastructure ensured high profitability for large enterprises. At the same time, large-scale productions were characterized by high capital intensity. This limited the possibilities for their further development, as it exceeded the capabilities of individual entrepreneurs. In this regard, at the time under review, the process of creating joint-stock companies (corporations) began. They were enterprises accumulating individual capital and personal savings through the issuance of shares, giving the right to their owners to receive part of the income - a dividend. Thus, along with the individual, a collective form of private property appears. Bernal, D. Science in the history of society. M., 1956. S. 28.

The mass creation of joint-stock companies unfolded in the Western countries in the last third of the 19th century, primarily in the newest industries where large amounts of advanced capital were required (electrical, machine-building, chemical, transport). This process became decisive in the economic development of Western countries in the late XIX - early XX century. It has reached a particularly large scale in the United States and in the countries of the "second echelon", primarily in Germany. For example, in the USA, almost 1/2 of all industrial production was in the hands of 1/100 of the total number of enterprises. On the basis of a high degree of concentration of production and centralization of capital, the process of formation of monopolies began. Monopolies are agreements, agreements regarding a single market strategy (price level, division of sales markets and sources of raw materials), concluded in order to ensure dominance in the market and obtain super profits Braudel, F. Dynamics of capitalism. Smolensk, 1993, p. 15.

At the time under review, monopolistic associations were formed, as a rule, within the same industry (horizontal integration), various industry monopolies arose. They were mainly cartels, syndicates and trusts. A cartel is the lowest form of monopolistic associations, which is an agreement between independent enterprises of one industry on prices, sales markets, production quotas for all participants, and the exchange of patents. A syndicate is a stage of monopolization, in which the enterprises of the industry, while maintaining legal and industrial independence, unite their commercial activities and create single offices for the sale of products. A trust is a higher form of monopolies, where both marketing and production are combined, enterprises are subject to a single management, retaining only their financial independence. This is a single giant association that dominates the industry. The highest form of monopolization at the beginning of the 20th century was the concern. Such a monopoly was usually created in related industries, distinguished by a single financial system and market strategy. The concern often retained production independence, but the integration of capital ensured the closest ties compared to other forms of monopoly associations. Depending on the national specifics of economic development, the level of concentration of production and the centralization of capital, various forms of monopolistic unions have become widespread in individual countries. Thus, cartels took a leading position in the German economy, syndicates - in France and Russia, trusts - in the USA. Concerns became more widespread later, from the beginning of the 20th century. Attention should be paid to the peculiarities of the process of monopolization in the countries of the "second echelon". Forced modernization here was accompanied by the creation of a highly concentrated industry. This contributed to the rapid and widespread monopolization of the economic system and the creation of the largest monopolies German history in modern and recent times: in 2 vol.

1860s were the ultimate stage in the development of free competition. The first monopolies began to be created after the economic crises of 1873 and 1882. Since that time, a new type of market relations has been formed, in which free competition turns into monopolistic. In the last third of the XIX century. monopolies were still fragile and often had a temporary character. Only at the beginning of the XX century. after the economic crisis of 1900-1903, which led to a new wave of bankruptcies, monopolization assumed wide scope, mass production became dominant in industry. Now monopolies began to be created in the traditional industries that formed the basis of "classical capitalism", including in agriculture. This contributed to the completion of the transition to monopoly capitalism. As a result, a special economic model was formed, focused primarily on the development of mass production. Such a strategy for the development of production led to a sharp increase in the rate of economic growth in Western countries. So, from 1903 to 1907. the total capacity of industrial production increased by 40--50%. Thus, at the beginning of the XX century. the mechanism of monopolistic competition and the system of mass production became decisive in the economic system of Western countries Erofeev, N. A. Essays on the history of England (1815-1917). M., 1959. S. 34.

The dominance of monopolies has not eliminated competition, which is the main driving force of the market economy. However, under the conditions of monopoly capitalism, it has become much more complicated. Now the rivalry between the big monopolies within individual industries, national economies, and on the scale of the entire world economy has acquired decisive importance. After the crisis of 1900-1903, when the share of the monopolized sector in the economies of the leading Western countries sharply increased, intra-industry competition was significantly limited. However, the absolute dominance of monopolies within entire industries was an exception. Basically, a situation developed when several leading monopoly groups fought for control over the industry market. This model is called an oligopoly. In addition, there was a fierce struggle between the monopolies and the non-monopoly sector, the “outsiders”. At the same time, the activity of monopolies, as powerful producers with the latest technological base, deformed pricing, disrupted the balance of supply and demand. In such a situation, small and medium-sized non-monopolized enterprises often went bankrupt, especially during periods of economic crises. In general, the monopolization of the economy blocked the natural mechanisms of market self-regulation and made it much more difficult to overcome the crisis.

The new role of banks naturally assumed their close interaction with industry, the merging of banking and industrial capital. The noted process took place both through the ownership of shares, and through the entry of bank directors into members of the supervisory boards of commercial and industrial enterprises and vice versa. For example, in 1910, 6 Berlin banks through their board members were represented in 751 industrial companies, and 51 largest industrialists were on the supervisory boards of the same banks. The merging of banking monopolies with industrial monopolies led to the formation of a new form of functioning of capital - the financial-industrial group (according to Marxist terminology - finance capital). If pre-monopoly capitalism is characterized by the differentiation of capital into 3 types - commercial, loan and industrial, then at its monopoly stage a single form is formed. Thus, a financial-industrial group (financial capital) is banking monopoly capital merged into a single system with production (industrial or agrarian) monopoly capital. As a result, grandiose banking and industrial empires, powerful dynasties of steel, oil, newspaper and other kings were formed. In the period under review, financial and industrial groups were, as a rule, family-dynastic in nature: the Morgans, the Rockefellers, the Du Ponts, the Rothschilds and others Ivanyan, E.A. History of the USA / E.A. Ivanyan. M., 2004. S. 26.

As a result of the concentration of production and capital, the monopolies acquired enormous wealth and, accordingly, enormous power over the national economy and society as a whole. For example, the first trust in US history - the Rockefeller Standard Oil Company - was created in 1879, and in the 1880s. he already controlled about 90% of the country's oil enterprises. In Germany during the same period, 85% of steel production was under the control of the "Union of magnates of the Ruhr and Saar", only 2 enterprises each dominated the German electrical and chemical industries. Monopolies had a significant impact on the socio-political development of society, they also formed the style of consumption. It was at this stage that a consumer society was formed - a society focused on material values.

With the development of machine production, the international division of labor deepened, the interdependence of countries increased, and the exchange of goods on the world market increased. The process of monopolization caused a new round in the expansion of international economic ties. The model of mass production has turned the entire world space into a single potential market for the economies of the leading powers. This testified to the completion of the formation of the world capitalist economy in the late XIX - early XX century. With the advent of the domination of monopolies, new important signs appeared in the development of world economic relations. First of all, it is the wide scope of the export of capital. In the pre-monopoly period, the most typical export was the export of goods, now the export of capital has become a more profitable type of export, which formed a single world financial market. Only in the first 13 years of the XX century. the volume of foreign investments of the leading Western countries has doubled. F. Braudel considers the export of capital in the context of center-periphery relations: “As long as capitalism remains capitalism, the excess of capital is used not to raise the standard of living of the masses in a given country, because this would be a decrease in the profits of the capitalists, but to increase profits by exporting capital abroad in backward countries. In these backward countries profits are usually high, because capital is scarce, the price of land is comparatively low, wages are low, and raw materials are cheap. The possibility of exporting capital is created by the fact that a number of backward countries have already been drawn into the circulation of world capitalism, the main lines of railways have been built or begun, the elementary conditions for the development of industry have been provided, etc. Thus, the export of capital is due to the desire of the monopolies for a more profitable investment of capital.

The economic division of the world is carried out in accordance with the economic power of national monopolies. At the same time, the natural unevenness of the economic development of countries, associated with various circumstances of an internal and external nature, can change the ratio of the economic potentials of monopolistic groups. In this regard, the third new sign of capitalism, already to a greater extent of a foreign policy order, is indicated - the intensification of the struggle between national monopolies, leading to the territorial division and redivision of the world between the great powers. This situation arose, firstly, from the very nature of the monopolies, striving for undivided dominance in the market, and secondly, from the nature of the still young monopolies, which had an imperfect structure. They operated, as a rule, within the same industry and therefore were very inflexible and vulnerable. In the event of an unfavorable market situation, the sectoral monopolies were unable to maneuver by pumping capital into the most profitable industries. In this regard, they needed additional guarantees. The latter were maximally provided with a territorial, i.e., political division of the world between countries. Thus, the dominance of monopolies in the economy inevitably gave rise to their desire for political domination in order to strengthen their influence in the conquered territories.

The struggle between national monopolies for the territorial division of the world was expressed, first of all, in the toughening of the struggle for colonies and spheres of influence. At the same time, at the time under review, it acquired a new quality - the goal of capturing the colonies was no longer only their economic exploitation, but also blocking the possible strengthening of the positions of other powers. As a result, expansion also spread to hard-to-reach, sparsely populated territories. At the turn of the century, the still free spaces of the African and Pacific regions were practically divided. By the beginning of the XX century. the colonial seizure of unoccupied lands was completed - therefore, the territorial division of the world between the great powers was completed. This led to a new round of struggle - for the redistribution of already established spheres of influence and the redistribution of the already divided world. Such a situation greatly increased the likelihood of the use of force in the policy of the great powers, the outbreak of wars. This was evidenced by the international situation at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century: acute conflicts between the leading powers did not stop until the First World War Loiberg, M.Ya. History of the economy. M., 1997. .