Scale for assessing the significance of scientific works. Evaluation of scientific successes and achievements Evaluation of scientific achievements

After the launch of the first satellite, the Nobel Committee will send a request: to whom should the prize be given? Khrushchev will answer that the satellite launched the people and the social system. The “justification” was the secrecy stamp, which was imposed on almost all of Korolev’s developments, and with them, on his personality. In fact, this was not the case - the Queen was well known both in Europe and in America. So the Nobel Prize “passed” by Korolev. Instead, shortly before the opportunity to receive the Nobel Prize, he became the only person in Soviet history, who, without being rehabilitated, was awarded the title of Hero of Socialist Labor.

· Twice Hero of Socialist Labor (04/20/1956; 06/17/1961).
· Awarded three Orders of Lenin, the Order of the Badge of Honor and medals.
· Laureate of the Lenin Prize.
Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.
· Honorable Sir the cities of Korolev, Kaluga and Baikonur

Self-assessment of scientific achievements

“Everything is going great, even better than I thought, and, it seems, for the first time in my life I feel tremendous satisfaction, and I want to shout something against the wind that hugs my face and makes my red bird shudder with gusts.

And somehow I can’t believe that such a heavy piece of metal and wood can fly. But it is enough just to break away from the Earth, as you feel that the car seems to come to life and flies with a whistle, obedient to every movement of the steering wheel. Isn't it the greatest satisfaction and reward to fly your own car?! For the sake of this, you can forget everything: and a whole string of sleepless nights, days spent in hard work without rest, without respite ... "

“Criticize someone else's, offer your own. Offering - do it.

“A missile under water is absurd. But that's why I'm going to do it."

“You can do it quickly, but badly, or you can do it slowly, but well. After a while, everyone will forget that it was fast, but will remember that it was bad. And vice versa ."

"What seemed unrealizable for centuries, which yesterday was only a daring dream, today becomes a real task, and tomorrow - an accomplishment!" S. P. Korolev

What was Sergey Korolev [Electronic resource] //Russian Seven

Type of COMPETENCE:

basic methods of research activities.

identify and systematize the main ideas in scientific texts; critically evaluate any incoming information, regardless of the source; avoid automatic application of standard formulas and techniques when solving problems.

skills of collecting, processing, analyzing and systematizing information on the research topic; the skills of choosing methods and means of solving research problems.

Planned learning outcomes* (indicators of achieving a given level of mastery of competencies)

HAVE: the skills of analyzing methodological problems that arise in solving research and practical problems, including in interdisciplinary areas	Lack of skills	Fragmentary application of the skills of analyzing methodological problems that arise in solving research and practical problems	In general, successful, but not systematic, application of the skills of analyzing methodological problems that arise in solving research and practical problems	In general, successful, but containing some gaps, application of skills for analyzing methodological problems that arise in solving research and practical problems	Successful and systematic application of the skills of analyzing methodological problems that arise in solving research and practical problems, including in interdisciplinary areas
OWN: the skills of critical analysis and evaluation of modern scientific achievements and results of activities in solving research and practical problems, including in interdisciplinary areas	Lack of skills	Fragmentary application of technologies for critical analysis and evaluation of modern scientific achievements and results of activities in solving research and practical problems.	In general, successful, but not systematic, application of technologies for critical analysis and evaluation of modern scientific achievements and results of activities in solving research and practical problems.	In general, a successful, but containing some gaps, application of critical analysis and evaluation technologies for modern scientific achievements and results of activities in solving research and practical problems.	Successful and systematic application of technologies for critical analysis and evaluation of modern scientific achievements and results of activities in solving research and practical problems.
a-BE ABLE: analyze alternative options solving research and practical problems and assess the potential gains / losses of the implementation of these options	Lack of skills	Partially mastered ability to analyze alternative solutions to research and practical problems and evaluate the potential gains / losses of the implementation of these options	Generally successful but not systematic analysis of alternative solutions to research and practical problems and assessment of potential gains/losses in the implementation of these options	Generally successful, but with some gaps in the analysis of alternative solutions to research problems and the assessment of potential gains / losses in the implementation of these options	Formed ability to analyze alternative solutions to research and practical problems and evaluate the potential gains / losses of the implementation of these options
b-BE ABLE: when solving research and practical problems, generate new ideas that can be operationalized based on available resources and constraints	Lack of skills	Partially mastered ability, when solving research and practical problems, to generate ideas that can be operationalized based on available resources and constraints	Generally successful, but not systematically exercised, the ability to generate ideas in solving research and practical problems that can be operationalized based on available resources and constraints	In general, successful, but containing some gaps, the ability to generate ideas in solving research and practical problems that can be operationalized based on available resources and constraints	Formed ability in solving research and practical problems to generate ideas that can be operationalized based on available resources and constraints
KNOW: methods for critical analysis and evaluation of modern scientific achievements, as well as methods for generating new ideas in solving research and practical problems, including in interdisciplinary areas	Lack of knowledge	Fragmentary knowledge of the methods of critical analysis and evaluation of modern scientific achievements, as well as methods for generating new ideas when solving research and practical problems	General, but not structured knowledge of methods for critical analysis and evaluation of modern scientific achievements, as well as methods for generating new ideas when solving research and practical problems	Formed, but containing separate gaps, knowledge of the main methods of critical analysis and evaluation of modern scientific achievements, as well as methods for generating new ideas when solving research and practical problems, including interdisciplinary ones	Formed systematic knowledge of the methods of critical analysis and evaluation of modern scientific achievements, as well as methods for generating new ideas in solving research and practical problems, including interdisciplinary ones

UK-2: The ability to design and carry out complex research, including interdisciplinary, based on a holistic systemic scientific worldview using knowledge in the field of history and philosophy of science.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPETENCE

Type of COMPETENCE:

Universal Competence of the Graduate Graduate Program.

THRESHOLD (INPUT) LEVEL OF KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS, EXPERIENCE REQUIRED FOR FORMATION OF COMPETENCE

In order for the formation of this competence to be possible, the student who has begun to master the postgraduate program must:

the main directions, problems, theories and methods of philosophy, the content of modern philosophical discussions on the problems of social development.

to form and reasonably defend their own position on various problems of philosophy; use the provisions and categories of philosophy to evaluate and analyze various social trends, facts and phenomena.

skills of perception and analysis of texts with philosophical content, methods of conducting discussions and polemics, skills of public speech and written reasoned presentation of one's own point of view.

Planned learning outcomes* (indicators of achieving a given level of mastery of competencies),	Criteria for evaluating learning outcomes

OWN: the skills of analyzing the main worldview and methodological problems, incl. interdisciplinary nature that arise in science on present stage its development	Lack of skills	Fragmentary application of the skills of analyzing the main worldview and methodological problems that arise in science at the present stage of its development	In general, successful, but not systematic, application of the skills of analyzing the main worldview and methodological problems that arise in science at the present stage of its development	In general, successful, but containing some gaps, application of the skills of analyzing the main worldview and methodological problems that arise in science at the present stage of its development	Successful and systematic application of the skills of analyzing the main worldview and methodological problems that arise in science at the present stage of its development
OWN: planning technologies in professional activities in the field of scientific research	Lack of skills	Fragmentary application of planning technologies in professional activities	In general, successful, but not systematic, application of planning technologies in professional activities	In general, successful, but containing some gaps, application of planning technologies in professional activities	Successful and systematic application of planning technologies in professional activities
KNOW: research methods	Lack of knowledge	Fragmentary ideas about the methods of research activities	Incomplete understanding of research methods	Formed, but containing separate gaps, ideas about the methods of research activities	Formed systematic ideas about the methods of research activities
KNOW: The main concepts of modern philosophy of science, the main stages of the evolution of science, the functions and foundations of the scientific picture of the world	Lack of knowledge	Fragmentary ideas about the main concepts of modern philosophy of science, the main stages of the evolution of science, the functions and foundations of the scientific picture of the world	Incomplete ideas about the basic concepts of modern philosophy of science, the main stages of the evolution of science, the functions and foundations of the scientific picture of the world	Formed, but containing separate gaps, ideas about the main concepts of modern philosophy of science, the main stages of the evolution of science, the functions and foundations of the scientific picture of the world	Formed systematic ideas about the main concepts of modern philosophy of science, the main stages of the evolution of science, the functions and foundations of the scientific picture of the world

UK-5(6) The ability to plan and solve problems of one's own professional and personal development

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPETENCE

Type of COMPETENCE:

Universal Competence of the Graduate Graduate Program.

THRESHOLD (INPUT) LEVEL OF KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS, EXPERIENCE REQUIRED FOR FORMATION OF COMPETENCE

In order for the formation of this competence to be possible, a student who has begun mastering a postgraduate program must:

possible areas and directions of professional self-realization; methods and technologies of goal-setting and goal-realization; ways to achieve higher levels of professional and personal development.

identify and formulate problems of their own development, based on the stages professional growth and labor market requirements for a specialist; formulate the goals of professional and personal development, assess their capabilities, realism and adequacy of the intended methods and ways to achieve the planned goals.

methods of goal-setting, planning, implementation of the necessary activities, evaluation and self-assessment of the results of activities to solve professional problems; techniques for identifying and understanding one's capabilities, personal and professionally significant qualities in order to improve them.

Planned learning outcomes (indicators of achieving a given level of mastery of competencies)	Criteria for evaluating learning outcomes

OWN: methods and technologies of goal-setting, goal-realization and evaluation of the results of activities in solving professional problems.	Does not own the methods and technologies of goal setting, goal realization and evaluation of the results of activities in solving professional problems.	He owns certain methods and technologies of goal-setting, goal-realization and evaluation of the results of activities in solving standard professional tasks, making mistakes when choosing methods and technologies and their implementation.	Owns separate methods and technologies of goal-setting, goal-realization and evaluation of the results of activities in solving standard professional tasks, giving an incompletely reasoned justification for the proposed solution.	Owns the techniques and technologies of goal-setting, goal-realization and evaluation of the results of activities in solving standard professional tasks, fully arguing the proposed solutions.	Demonstrates possession of a system of techniques and technologies for goal setting, goal realization and evaluation of the results of activities in solving non-standard professional tasks, fully arguing the choice of the proposed solution.
OWN: ways to identify and evaluate individual, personal, professionally significant qualities and ways to achieve a higher level of their development.	Does not know how to identify and evaluate individual-personal, professionally significant qualities and ways to achieve a higher level of their development.	Owns information about ways to identify and evaluate individual, personal, professionally significant qualities and ways to achieve a higher level of their development, making significant mistakes when applying this knowledge.	Owns some methods of identifying and evaluating individual-personal and professionally significant qualities necessary for the performance of professional activities, while not demonstrating the ability to assess these qualities and identify specific ways to improve them.	Owns separate methods of identifying and evaluating individual-personal and professionally significant qualities necessary for the performance of professional activities, and identifies specific ways of self-improvement.	Owns a system of methods for identifying and evaluating individual-personal and professionally significant qualities necessary for professional self-realization, and determines adequate ways of self-improvement.
TO BE ABLE TO: formulate the goals of personal and professional development and the conditions for their achievement, based on the trends in the development of the field of professional activity, stages of professional growth, individual and personal characteristics.	He does not know how and is not ready to formulate the goals of personal and professional development and the conditions for their achievement, based on the trends in the development of the field of professional activity, the stages of professional growth, and individual personal characteristics.	Having a basic understanding of the trends in the development of professional activity and the stages of professional growth, he is not able to formulate the goals of professional and personal development.	When formulating the goals of professional and personal development, it does not take into account the trends in the development of the sphere of professional activity and individual and personal characteristics.	Formulates the goals of personal and professional development, based on the trends in the development of the sphere of professional activity and individual personal characteristics, but does not fully take into account the possible stages of professional socialization.	Ready and able to formulate the goals of personal and professional development and the conditions for achieving them, based on the trends in the development of the field of professional activity, stages of professional growth, individual and personal characteristics.
TO BE ABLE TO: make a personal choice in various professional and moral-value situations, evaluate the consequences of the decision made and bear responsibility for it to yourself and society.	He is not ready and does not know how to make a personal choice in various professional and moral-value situations, evaluate the consequences of the decision and bear responsibility for it to himself and society.	Ready to make a personal choice in specific professional and moral-value situations, but does not know how to assess the consequences of the decision and bear responsibility for it to himself and society.	Makes a personal choice in specific professional and moral-value situations, evaluates some of the consequences of the decision, but is not ready to bear responsibility for it to himself and society.	Makes a personal choice in standard professional and moral-value situations, evaluates some of the consequences of the decision and is ready to bear responsibility for it to himself and society.	Able to make a personal choice in various non-standard professional and moral-value situations, evaluate the consequences of the decision and bear responsibility for it to himself and society.
KNOW: the content of the goal-setting process of professional and personal development, its features and methods of implementation in solving professional problems, based on the stages of career growth and the requirements of the labor market.	Does not have basic knowledge about the essence of the goal-setting process, its features and methods of implementation.	Makes significant mistakes when disclosing the content of the goal-setting process, its features and methods of implementation.	Demonstrates partial knowledge of the content of the goal-setting process, some features of professional development and self-realization of the individual, indicates methods of implementation, but cannot substantiate the possibility of their use in specific situations.	Demonstrates knowledge of the essence of the goal-setting process, individual features of the process and methods of its implementation, characteristics of a professional personal development, but does not highlight the criteria for choosing methods of goal-realization in solving professional problems.	It reveals the full content of the goal-setting process, all its features, substantiates the criteria for choosing the methods of professional and personal goal-realization in solving professional problems.

Annex 3

"General problems of the history and philosophy of science"

1. Relationship between philosophy and science: basic concepts.

2. The problem of the status of science. Three aspects of the existence of science: science as a system of knowledge, science as cognitive activity, science as a social institution.

3. Basic approaches to the analysis of science. Philosophy of Science. Sociology of science. Science of Science.

4. Science in the system of modern civilization. Internalism and externalism.

5. The problem of the emergence of sciences.

6. The problem of science classification.

7. The problem of rationality of scientific knowledge.

8. The problem of the foundations of science.

9. Scientific picture of the world, its role in modern philosophy of science.

10. Inductive-empirical model of building scientific knowledge: its origin and development, main advantages and disadvantages.

11. Hypothetical-deductive model of building scientific knowledge: its philosophical foundations and modern significance.

12. Basic concepts of the growth of scientific knowledge: classical positivism and empirio-criticism.

13. Logical and philosophical premises of logical positivism. Vienna circle.

14. Basic ideas of late logical positivism (R. Carnap). The main reasons for the collapse of logical positivism.

15. Falsificationism of K. Popper.

16. The concept of research programs I. Lakatos.

17. Theory of paradigms by T. Kuhn.

18. P. Feyerabend's epistemological anarchism.

19.Evolutionary epistemology: basic principles and approaches to development.

Exam questions for the section

"Philosophical questions of social sciences and humanities"

(for graduate students in socio-humanitarian areas)

1. The formation of social and humanitarian knowledge within the framework of philosophy.

2. Interaction of philosophical, natural science and humanitarian knowledge.

3. Communication of science with society. Forms of social influences on the development of social sciences and the humanities.

4. The social context of the development of the social sciences and the humanities in the twentieth century. general theoretical approaches.

5. The main research programs of the social sciences and the humanities.

6. The place of social and humanitarian knowledge in the structure of modern scientific knowledge. Identity and difference of social and human sciences.

7. Scientific knowledge: the specificity of subject-object relations in the knowledge of man and society.

8. Scientific rationality, features of its manifestation in social humanities.

9. Ideals and norms of social and humanitarian knowledge of the modern era.

10. Communicative rationality and communicative action. Communication in the sciences of society and man.

11. Postmodern methodology: its impact on state of the art social and humanitarian sciences.

12. The language of science: the identity and difference between the language of the social sciences and the humanities and everyday language.

13. General scientific methods of cognition and their specificity in social sciences and humanities.

14. Methods of knowledge of social sciences and humanities.

15. Scientific theories in the sciences of society and man.

16. Philosophical and methodological analysis of the text. The concept of space and time in social and humanitarian knowledge.

17. The problem of truth. The relationship between truth and truth. The ideological context of truth: truth and justice.

18. Post-non-classical science. New methodologies in social sciences and humanities.

19. Information revolution and its impact on the development of social sciences and humanities. Computer modelling and its possibilities in the study of cognitive processes

20. .Information society as a means of building a "knowledge society". The place and role of science in knowledge societies.

Exam questions for the section

"Philosophical questions of mathematical and natural sciences"

(for graduate students of natural and mathematical orientations)

1. Sociocultural concepts of the development of mathematics.

2. Identity and difference between fundamentalist and non-fundamentalist directions in mathematics.

3. The problem of foundation of mathematics.

4. Empiricism and apriorism in the interpretation of mathematical concepts.

5. Features of modern mathematization of knowledge.

6. Place of physics in the system of natural science knowledge.

7. Philosophical analysis opposition of reductionism and holism.

8. The problem of describing elementary objects in modern physics.

9. Philosophical analysis of the concepts of space and time.

10.Computer sciences and physics.

11. Correlation between physics and chemistry: reduction or integration?

12. The main stages of the physicalization of chemistry.

13. The structure of modern chemical theory.

14. Relationship between the history and philosophy of chemistry.

15. Place of biology in the system of scientific knowledge: historical aspect.

16. Problem systemic organization and systems approach in biology.

17. The role of biological knowledge in the formation of the modern evolutionary picture of the world.

18. Informatics as an interdisciplinary science.

19. Epistemological content of the computer revolution.

Scientists in the service of peace and progress are united general principles knowledge of the laws of nature and society, although the science of the XX century. highly differentiated. The greatest achievements of the human mind are due to the exchange of scientific information, the transfer of the results of theoretical and experimental research from one area to another. From the collaboration of scientists different countries depends on the progress not only of science and technology, but also of human culture and civilization as a whole. 20th century phenomenon in the fact that the number of scientists in the entire previous history of mankind is only 0.1 of those working in science now, that is, 90% of scientists are our contemporaries. And how to evaluate their achievements? Various scientific centers, societies and academies, numerous scientific committees of different countries and various international organizations celebrate the merits of scientists, evaluating their personal contribution to the development of science and the significance of their scientific achievements or discoveries. There are many criteria for assessing the importance scientific works. Specific works are evaluated by the number of references to them in the works of other authors or by the number of translations into other languages of the world. With this method, which has many drawbacks, a computer program on "citation indexes" provides significant assistance. But this or similar methods do not allow you to see "forests behind individual trees." There is a system of awards - medals, prizes, honorary titles in every country and in the world.

Among the most prestigious scientific awards is the prize established on June 29, 1900 by Alfred Nobel. According to the terms of his will, prizes should be awarded once every 5 years to persons who made discoveries in the previous year that made a fundamental contribution to the progress of mankind. But they also began to award for works or discoveries recent years, whose importance has recently been assessed. The first prize in the field of physics was awarded to V. Roentgen in 1901 for a discovery made 5 years ago. The first Nobel Prize winner for research in the field of chemical kinetics was J. Van't Hoff, and in the field of physiology and medicine - E. Behring, who became famous as the creator of anti-diphtheria antitoxic serum.

Many domestic scientists were also awarded this prestigious award. In 1904, the Nobel Prize winner in fi-

ziology and medicine became I. P. Pavlov, and in 1908 - I. I. Mechnikov. Among the domestic Nobel laureates - Academician N.N. Semenov (together with the English scientist S. Hinshelvud) for research on the mechanism of chemical chain reactions (1956); physicists I.E. Tamm, I.M. Frank and P.A. Cherenkov - for the discovery and study of the effect of a superluminal electron (1958). For work on the theory of condensed matter and liquid helium, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded in 1962 to Academician L. D. Landau. In 1964, Academicians N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov (together with the American C. Townes) became laureates of this prize for the creation new area science - quantum electronics. In 1978, Academician P. L. Kapitsa also became a Nobel laureate for discoveries and fundamental inventions in the field of low temperatures. In 2000, as if completing the century of awarding the Nobel Prizes, Academician Zh.I. Alferov (from the A.F. Ioffe Physical-Technical Institute, St. become Nobel laureates for the development of semiconductor heterostructures used in high-frequency electronics and optoelectronics.

The Nobel Prize is awarded by the Nobel Committee of the Swedish Academy of Sciences. In the 60s, the activities of this committee were criticized, since many scientists who achieved no less valuable results, but worked as part of large teams or published in an “unusual” publication for committee members, did not become Nobel Prize winners. For example, in 1928, Indian scientists V. Raman and K. Krishnan studied the spectral composition of light as it passed through various liquids and observed new lines of the spectrum shifted to the red and blue sides. Somewhat earlier and independently of them, a similar phenomenon in crystals was observed by Soviet physicists L.I. Mandelstam and G.S. Landsberg, who published their research in the press. But W. Raman sent a short message to a well-known English journal, which ensured his fame and the Nobel Prize in 1930 for the discovery of Raman scattering of light. Over the course of the century, studies became larger and larger in number of participants, so it became more difficult to award individual prizes, as envisaged in Nobel's will. In addition, areas of knowledge that were not envisaged by Nobel arose and developed.

New international awards were also organized. So, in 1951, the A. Galaber International Prize was established, awarded for scientific achievements in space exploration. Many Soviet scientists and cosmonauts became its laureates. Among them are the chief theoretician of cosmonautics, Academician M. V. Keldysh and the first cosmonaut of the Earth, Yu. A. Gagarin. The International Academy of Astronautics established its own award; it marked the works of M. V. Keldysh, O. G. Gazenko, L. I. Sedov, cosmonauts A. G. Nikolaev and

V. I. Sevastyanov. In 1969, for example, the Swedish Bank established the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences (in 1975, the Soviet mathematician L.V. Kantorovich received it). The International Mathematical Congress began to award young scientists (up to 40 years old) the J. Fields Prize for achievements in the field of mathematics. This prestigious prize, awarded every 4 years, was awarded to young Soviet scientists S.P. Novikov (1970) and G.A. Margulis (1978). Many prizes awarded by various committees acquired international status at the end of the century. For example, the medal of W. G. Wollaston, awarded by the London Geological Society since 1831, evaluated the merits of our geologists A. P. Karpinsky and A. E. Fersman. By the way, in 1977, the Hamburg Foundation established the A.P. Karpinsky Prize, a Russian and Soviet geologist, President of the USSR Academy of Sciences from 1917 to 1936. This prize is awarded annually to our compatriots for outstanding achievements in the field of natural and social sciences. The prize winners were outstanding scientists Yu. A. Ovchinnikov, B. B. Piotrovsky and V. I. Gol'danskii.

In our country, the Lenin Prize, established in 1957, was the highest form of encouragement and recognition of scientific merit. Lenin, which existed from 1925 to 1935. Laureates of the Prize. Lenin became A. N. Bakh, L. A. Chugaev, N. I. Vavilov, N. S. Kurnakov, A. E. Fersman, A. E. Chichibabin, V. N. Ipatiev and others. many outstanding scientists: A.N. Nesmeyanov, N.M. Emanuel, A.I. Oparin, G.I. Budker, R.V. Khokhlov, V.P. Chebotaev, V.S. Aleksandrov, Yu. A. Ovchinnikov and others. USSR State Prizes were awarded for research that made a major contribution to the development of science, and for work on the creation and implementation of the most progressive and high-tech processes and mechanisms in the national economy. Now in Russia there are corresponding awards of the President and the Government of the Russian Federation.

^ 1.8. Modern scientific and technological revolution: achievements and problems

The modern era is called the era scientific and technological revolution(NTR). This means that science has become a leading factor in the development of social production and the entire life of society, has become a direct productive force. If we turn to the beginning of the 20th century, when major discoveries were made in science and technology, we can trace the process of preparing the scientific and technological revolution. For a quarter of a century, the electron was discovered in physics, the complex structure of the atom was revealed, the corpuscular-wave

the dualism of light and matter, the phenomena of natural and artificial radioactivity were discovered, quantum mechanics and the theory of relativity were created. In life, electricity, mechanization and automation of production began to be widely used; communication facilities developed, radio and television, automobiles, airplanes, and electric trains appeared; new energy sources developed. Advances in chemistry and biology have led to the development of technologies organic matter and methods of controlling chemical processes, in particular the synthesis of many drugs, explosives, dyes, food products, as well as to obtain new substances with desired properties. Science appeared - genetics, molecular biology, cybernetics.

In the middle of the XX century. scientific and technological progress began to have a decisive influence on the world political life. The creation of the atomic bomb showed that mastering the achievements of science and advanced technologies determines the fate of countries and mankind. The next milestone in the scientific and technological revolution is the mastery of space: the creation of artificial satellites, the flight of Yu. A. Gagarin, the exploration of other planets by spacecraft, the exit of man into outer space and to the moon. Mankind has realized its unity. As the famous physicist W. Heisenberg put it, “... they were not interested in nature as it is, but, first of all, they wondered what could be done with it. Natural science therefore turned into technology. More precisely, it was connected with technology into a single whole. This connection with technology is expressed in the very term scientific and technological revolution. The appearance and mass distribution of computers, to which a person can transfer his logical functions and gradually a number of functions for the automation of production, control and management, led to an impressive leap forward in many areas of life - in the fields of production, education, business, science and social life. There has been a dramatic change in the whole structure of life of one generation of mankind: new types of energy, electronic instrumentation, biotechnology are being discovered and used; the entire technological basis of production and management is being rebuilt, the attitude of a person towards them is changing, one system interaction between man and nature - science, technology, production.

At the end of the XX century. high-tech products occupy an increasing place in the gross domestic product of developed countries, ensuring its growth; their development determines the position of the state in modern world. Therefore, most countries of the world are making every effort to strengthen their scientific and technical potential, expand investment in high technologies, participate in international technological exchange, and accelerate the pace of scientific and technological development. Economic growth is identified with scientific and technological progress and intellectual

Zation of the main factors of production. New productions demand the highest precision, reliability and stability. A small violation or oversight can cause a disruption of the entire production or a disaster, which is why the requirements for the qualifications and reliability of personnel are so high. High-tech areas combine microelectronics, information and biotechnologies. The spread of high technologies and the increased share of the cost of scientific research in the price of a product (science-intensity) have increased the requirements for the level of preparedness of production participants.

In addition, the time between the conduct of scientific research and its implementation has been drastically reduced; in this case, objects that have not been thoroughly studied are often used, which are difficult to imagine on the basis of previous experience. Hence - a completely different attitude to science. Despite the large share of risk, the possible profit is high. Both the governments of many developed countries and large firms are investing in Scientific research; venture companies are created (from the French. overture- risk, gamble) firms that attract small investors. This is beneficial for the development of science, since it requires expensive equipment, developed infrastructure, a high degree of informatization, highly qualified personnel, etc. But the merging of science with business has negative consequences - serving the Truth recedes into the background, scientific ethics are changing. The outlook of the people has also changed.

Information to the beginning of the XXI century. has become a strategic resource of society (like food, industrial or energy resources). There was a change in the dominant type of activity in the sphere of social production (first from agrarian to industrial, and then to information). The role of science in society has greatly increased, exerting a huge influence on the worldview. But the worldview is increasingly influencing the economy, politics, social life. In the conditions of the exhaustion of the possibilities of extensive development, humanity again realized its unity. But they are growing global problems, which can only be solved by joint efforts ( nuclear disarmament, ecology, security, construction and maintenance of the global information and switching infrastructure). High professionalism is inseparable from morality, humanism, an integral vision of the unity and interconnection of nature and society, Man and Cosmos.

The relationship between man and nature and between people and each other is changing. Life has become longer and more comfortable. Appliances equipped with microprocessors, you can communicate, study, buy goods, etc. via the Internet. Due to automation and robotization of activity, a person is being squeezed out of production, the share of creative work is growing, society must continuously educate

learn new things, become a “learning society”. A person has become freer, but he is not yet ready to use the material wealth and leisure that the scientific and technological revolution has given him for the benefit of himself and society. The comforts of life separate people from each other; the development of new achievements of scientific and technological revolution occurs due to the development of narrow specialization; increasing pressure on environment. The rapid pace of development and the high complexity of these industries have led to the need for computerization and automation of the technological processes, their design, storage and transportation of raw materials and products, continuous study of the sales market, etc.

An increase in the number of highly qualified specialists is becoming the main form of accumulation in the modern economy, and people, their minds, are the most valuable strategic resource for which there is a competitive struggle that is not inferior in intensity to the struggle for raw materials. And if a country is not able to finance scientific research, development and development of high technology, it runs the risk of "falling behind forever." The notion of science as a direct productive force is a tribute to the growing role of scientific labor in the total social product. Now the share of new knowledge, embodied in technologies, equipment and organization of production, in developed countries accounts for 70 to 85% of GDP growth, and the share of seven highly developed countries is 80-90% of science-intensive products and all of its exports. Governments cannot make important decisions without consulting experts and, above all, natural scientists.

Science can give a person the knowledge of how to exercise control over the state surrounding nature how best to organize production, how to provide yourself with energy and resource-saving technologies how to ensure the security of peoples, but can not limit the growth of consumption of one at the expense of the other.

The simplest example is road transport. Automobile exhaust is one of the main sources of acid rain. But switching to other fuels or even limiting the speed of movement is not supported by motorists, and governments do not pass tough laws accordingly. Also, not a single entrepreneur will reduce his profit from production by spending money on treatment facilities, if the authorities do not adopt appropriate laws.

Therefore, the preparation of the public consciousness for the correct perception of the achievements of the scientific and technological revolution, the development of competent laws that reasonably limit consumption, and the increase in the level of competence of managers and rulers are of paramount importance. Fundamental science is one of the highest spiritual values of mankind and carries a unifying principle. In conclusion, we quote the words of the Nobel laureate

I.P. Pavlova, said at the beginning of the 20th century: “What we, Russians, need now in particular is the promotion of scientific aspirations, an abundance of scientific means and passionate scientific work. Obviously, science is becoming the main lever in the life of peoples, without it it is impossible to maintain either independence, much less a worthy position. V the world."

^ Questions for self-examination and review

How was the idea of the criterion of the truth of knowledge formed?
What are the differences scientific knowledge from extrascientific? What is the difference between the natural sciences and the humanities? What is the difference between natural science and philosophy?
What general scientific methods are used in natural science? Define the terms "thought experiment" and "model experiment" and give examples.
What is the sequence of stages in the development of scientific knowledge? What is the difference between a disciplinary approach and an interdisciplinary one?
Name the stages of development of natural science.
Define the term "scientific revolution" and give examples.
Define the concept of "scientific picture of the world" and give an example of changing pictures of the world.
Describe the properties of systems and the system approach.
Define the concept of scientific and technological revolution and formulate its problems.

10. Define the concept of "scientific program" and show how
how the strategies of cognition have changed in the history of natural science.

Chapter 2

^ CONCEPTS OF SPACE, TIME

AND MATTER. FUNDAMENTAL

INTERACTIONS

2.1. The concept of "space"

In ordinary perception space understand a certain extended void in which any objects can be located. However, between celestial bodies there is a certain amount of matter, and the physical vacuum contains virtual particles. In science, space is seen as physical entity, which has specific properties and structure.

Space and time are universal and necessary objective forms of the existence of matter. “In the world,” V. I. Lenin wrote, “there is nothing but moving matter, and moving matter cannot move except in space and time.” Matter objectively exists in the form of matter and field, forms the Universe that exists regardless of whether we feel it or not.

The main properties of space were formed as the human exploration of territories and the development of geometry (from the Greek. geometry- surveying). Established to III V. BC e. knowledge was systematized by the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid. In his famous work "Beginnings", consisting of 15 books, which became the basis of geometry, he organized scientific thinking on the basis of logic. In the first book, Euclid defined the ideal objects of geometry: point, straight line, plane, surface.

These objects were considered through some characteristics of the real surrounding world or any objects, often for this purpose the ideas of a ray of light or a stretched string were used. For example, the image of a straight line is associated with a ray of light. But it was known that in inhomogeneous media a light beam is refracted; and Euclid himself received the law of equality of the angles of reflection and incidence, and Aristotle talked about the apparent refraction of a stick partially immersed in water. Based on the simplest properties of lines and angles, Euclid, through strict logical proofs, came in planimetry to the formulation of the conditions for the equality of triangles, the equality of areas, the Pythagorean theorem, the golden section, the circle and regular polygons. In books V-VI and X he expounds Eudoxus's theory of incommensurables and the rules of similarity, VII-IX the theory of numbers, and in the last three, geometry in space. From solid angles, volumes of parallelepipeds, prisms, pyramids and a ball, Euclid proceeds to the study of five regular ("Platonic") solids and the proof that there are only five of them.

Euclid's exposition is constructed in the form of strictly logical conclusions of theorems from a system of axioms and postulates (except for the system of definitions). According to them, the basic ideas about space are defined, which are used by I. Newton in his "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" (1687):

homogeneity - there are no selected points of space, parallel transfer does not change the form of the laws of nature;

isotropy - there are no distinguished directions in space, and turning through any angle preserves the laws of nature unchanged;

continuity- between two different points in space, no matter how close they are, there is always a third one;

three-dimensionality- each point of space is uniquely determined by a set of three real numbers - coordinates;

"Euclidean" - is described by the geometry of Euclid, in which, according to the fifth postulate, parallel lines do not intersect or the sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180°.

The fifth postulate of Euclid's geometry attracted special attention, and some of its equivalents led in the 19th century. to the possibility of other geometries in which the sum of the angles of a triangle is greater (Riemann's geometry - geometry on a sphere) or less than 180° (Lobachevsky's and Bogliai's geometries).

The position of bodies in the surrounding space is determined by three coordinates (longitude, latitude, height), i.e. visual representations correspond to the three-dimensionality of space. Ptolemy in his work "Almagest" argued that in nature there can be no more than three spatial dimensions. To determine the position in space, R. Descartes substantiated the unity of physics and geometry. Having developed the idea of short-range action, he explained all the phenomena of nature by the mechanical interaction of particles, he remembered the world as a subtle matter - ether. He introduced a rectangular coordinate system ("Cartesian coordinates") - x, y, z. To describe the orbits of the planets as they move around the Sun, it is more convenient to use a spherical coordinate system that highlights the position of the Sun and takes into account that the gravitational field decreases equally in all directions. The choice of a coordinate system is simply a choice of description method and cannot affect the properties of the continuum to be described. Spaces and continuums, regardless of the way of description, have their own internal geometric properties (for example, curvature). A space is called curved if it is impossible to introduce a coordinate system into it, which can be considered rectilinear. Otherwise, it is flat.

The physical world of Descartes consists of two entities: matter (simple "extension endowed with form") and movement. Because the

Scientists in serving the world and progress are united by the general principles of knowledge of the laws of nature and society, although the science of the XX century. highly differentiated. The greatest achievements of the human mind are due to the exchange of scientific information, the transfer of the results of theoretical and experimental research from one area to another. The progress of not only science and technology, but also of human culture and civilization as a whole depends on the cooperation of scientists from different countries. 20th century phenomenon in the fact that the number of scientists in the entire previous history of mankind is only 0.1 of those working in science now, that is, 90% of scientists are our contemporaries. And how to evaluate their achievements? Various scientific centers, societies and academies, numerous scientific committees of different countries and various international organizations celebrate the merits of scientists, evaluating their personal contribution to the development of science and the significance of their scientific achievements or discoveries. There are many criteria for assessing the importance of scientific papers. Specific works are evaluated by the number of references to them in the works of other authors or by the number of translations into other languages of the world. With this method, which has many drawbacks, a computer program on "citation indexes" provides significant assistance. But this or similar methods do not allow you to see "forests behind individual trees." There is a system of awards - medals, prizes, honorary titles in every country and in the world.

Among the most prestigious scientific awards is the prize established on June 29, 1900 by Alfred Nobel. According to the terms of his will, prizes should be awarded once every 5 years to persons who made discoveries in the previous year that made a fundamental contribution to the progress of mankind. But they also began to reward works or discoveries of recent years, the importance of which was recently appreciated. The first prize in the field of physics was awarded to V. Roentgen in 1901 for a discovery made 5 years ago. The first Nobel Prize winner for research in the field of chemical kinetics was J. Van't Hoff, and in the field of physiology and medicine - E. Behring, who became famous as the creator of anti-diphtheria antitoxic serum.

Many domestic scientists have also been awarded this prestigious award. In 1904, the Nobel Prize winner in fi-

Ziology and medicine became IP Pavlov, and in 1908 - I. I. Mechnikov. Among the domestic Nobel laureates - Academician N.N. Semenov (together with the English scientist S. Hinshelvud) for research on the mechanism of chemical chain reactions (1956); physicists I.E. Tamm, I.M. Frank and P.A. Cherenkov - for the discovery and study of the effect of a superluminal electron (1958). For work on the theory of condensed matter and liquid helium, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded in 1962 to Academician L. D. Landau. In 1964, Academicians N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov (together with the American C. Townes) became laureates of this prize for the creation of a new field of science - quantum electronics. In 1978, Academician P. L. Kapitsa was also awarded the Nobel Prize for discoveries and fundamental inventions in the field of low temperatures. In 2000, as if completing the century of awarding the Nobel Prizes, Academician Zh.I. Alferov (from the A.F. Ioffe Physical-Technical Institute, St. became Nobel laureates for the development of semiconductor heterostructures used in high-frequency electronics and optoelectronics.