In the 1960s, the combat equipment of which, after launching and entering low Earth orbit, after completing an incomplete orbit, hit a target on the Earth's surface. Such a system had no restrictions on the firing range, and the orbital flight trajectory did not allow predicting the aiming point. The system made it possible to deliver nuclear missile strikes on the territory of the United States along the least expected trajectories - through the South Pole, from the direction opposite to that to which the NORAD early warning system was oriented in those years.

Several missiles were developed for use as part of a partially orbital bombardment system in the USSR, but only one of them was put into service:

• Orbital rocket R-36orb (8K69), developed by OKB-586 M.K. Yangel. It was deployed in 1968, the first regiment took up combat duty in 1969 on the territory of NIIP-5. The maximum number of deployed missiles is 18;
• Global rocket GR-1 (8K713), developed by OKB-1 S.P. Korolev. Work on the rocket was abandoned for a number of reasons (one of which was problems with the engines);
• R-46, also proposed by OKB-586, did not leave the state of the project;
• Universal missile UR-200A (8K81), developed by OKB-52 V. N. Chelomey. After nine launches at the NIIP-5 test site, work on the rocket was discontinued;
• The powerful universal rocket UR-500 (which later became the Proton launch vehicle) began to be developed by decree of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR of April 29, 1962 No. 409-183, including in the version of a combat orbital rocket.

US DSP Early Warning Satellites (English) Russian, the first of which was launched in 1970, allowed the United States to detect launches of orbital [ ] missiles [ ] .

Limitation Treaty strategic weapons SALT-2, signed by the USSR and the USA in 1979, prohibited the deployment of systems similar to the partial orbital bombardment system:

Article 9

1. Each Party undertakes not to develop, test or deploy:

c) means for launching nuclear weapons or any other types of weapons of mass destruction into low Earth orbit, including partially orbital rockets;

In accordance with the agreement, the R-36orb missiles were decommissioned in January 1983.

Literature

• Ground-based strategic missile systems. - M.: "Military Parade", 2007. - 248 p. - 2000 copies. - ISBN 5-902975-12-3.
• Rockets and spacecraft of the Yuzhnoye Design Bureau / Ed. S. N. Konyukhova. - Dnepropetrovsk: ColorGraph LLC, 2001. - 240 p. - 1100 copies. - ISBN 966-7482-00-6.

To date Russian Federation has the most powerful space industry in the world. Russia is the undisputed leader in the field of manned cosmonautics and, moreover, has parity with the United States in matters of space navigation. Some lags in our country are only in the research of distant interplanetary spaces, as well as in developments in remote sensing of the Earth.

Story

The space rocket was first conceived by Russian scientists Tsiolkovsky and Meshchersky. In 1897-1903 they created the theory of its flight. Much later, foreign scientists began to master this direction. These were the Germans von Braun and Oberth, as well as the American Goddard. In peacetime between the wars, only three countries in the world dealt with issues of jet propulsion, as well as the creation of solid-fuel and liquid engines for this purpose. These were Russia, the USA and Germany.

Already by the 40s of the 20th century, our country could be proud of the successes achieved in the creation of solid fuel engines. This made it possible to use such formidable weapons as Katyushas during World War II. As for the creation of large rockets equipped with liquid engines, Germany was the leader here. It was in this country that the V-2 was adopted. These are the first short-range ballistic missiles. During World War II, the V-2 was used to bomb England.

After the victory of the USSR over Nazi Germany, the main team of Wernher von Braun, under his direct leadership, launched its activities in the United States. At the same time, they took with them from the defeated country all the previously developed drawings and calculations, on the basis of which the space rocket was to be built. Only a tiny part of the team of German engineers and scientists continued their work in the USSR until the mid-1950s. At their disposal were separate parts of technological equipment and missiles without any calculations and drawings.

Later, both in the USA and in the USSR, V-2 rockets were reproduced (in our case it is R-1), which predetermined the development of rocket science aimed at increasing the flight range.

Tsiolkovsky's theory

This great Russian self-taught scientist and outstanding inventor is considered the father of astronautics. Back in 1883, he wrote the historical manuscript "Free Space". In this work, Tsiolkovsky for the first time expressed the idea that movement between planets is possible, and a special one is needed for this, which is called a "space rocket". The very theory of the reactive device was substantiated by him in 1903. It was contained in a work called "Investigation of the World Space". Here the author cited evidence that a space rocket is the apparatus with which you can leave the earth's atmosphere. This theory was a real revolution in the scientific field. After all, mankind has long dreamed of flying to Mars, the Moon and other planets. However, pundits have not been able to determine how an aircraft should be arranged, which will move in an absolutely empty space without a support capable of giving it acceleration. This problem was solved by Tsiolkovsky, who proposed the use for this purpose. Only with the help of such a mechanism it was possible to conquer space.

Operating principle

Space rockets of Russia, the USA and other countries are still entering the Earth's orbit with the help of rocket engines, proposed at the time by Tsiolkovsky. In these systems, the chemical energy of the fuel is converted into kinetic energy, which is possessed by the jet ejected from the nozzle. A special process takes place in the combustion chambers of such engines. As a result of the reaction of the oxidizer and fuel, heat is released in them. In this case, the combustion products expand, heat up, accelerate in the nozzle and are ejected at great speed. In this case, the rocket moves due to the law of conservation of momentum. She receives acceleration, which is directed in the opposite direction.

To date, there are such engine projects as space elevators, etc. However, in practice they are not used, as they are still in development.

First spacecraft

The Tsiolkovsky rocket, proposed by the scientist, was an oblong metal chamber. Outwardly, it looked like a balloon or airship. The front, head space of the rocket was intended for passengers. Control devices were also installed here, as well as carbon dioxide absorbers and oxygen reserves were stored. Lighting was provided in the passenger compartment. In the second, main part of the rocket, Tsiolkovsky placed combustible substances. When they were mixed, an explosive mass was formed. She was ignited in the place allotted to her in the very center of the rocket and was thrown out of the expanding pipe at great speed in the form of hot gases.

For a long time the name of Tsiolkovsky was little known not only abroad, but also in Russia. Many considered him a dreamer-idealist and an eccentric dreamer. The works of this great scientist received a true assessment only with the advent of Soviet power.

Creation of a missile complex in the USSR

Significant steps in the exploration of interplanetary space were made after the end of World War II. It was a time when the United States, being the only nuclear power, began to exert political pressure on our country. The initial task that was set before our scientists was to build up the military power of Russia. For a worthy rebuff in the conditions of the Cold War unleashed in these years, it was necessary to create an atomic one, and then the second, no less difficult task, was to deliver the created weapons to the target. For this, combat missiles were required. In order to create this technique, already in 1946 the government appointed chief designers of gyroscopic instruments, jet engines, control systems, etc. S.P. became responsible for linking all systems into a single whole. Korolev.

Already in 1948, the first of the ballistic missiles developed in the USSR was successfully tested. Similar flights in the USA were carried out a few years later.

Launch of an artificial satellite

In addition to building up military potential, the government of the USSR set itself the task of developing outer space. Work in this direction was carried out by many scientists and designers. Even before an intercontinental-range missile took off into the air, it became clear to the developers of such technology that by reducing the payload of an aircraft, it was possible to achieve speeds exceeding space speed. This fact spoke about the probability of launching an artificial satellite into the earth's orbit. This landmark event took place on October 4, 1957. It became the beginning of a new milestone in the exploration of outer space.

The work on the development of airless near-Earth space required enormous efforts on the part of numerous teams of designers, scientists and workers. The creators of space rockets had to develop a program for launching an aircraft into orbit, debug the work of the ground service, etc.

The designers faced a difficult task. It was necessary to increase the mass of the rocket and make it possible for it to reach the second. That is why in 1958-1959 a three-stage version of a jet engine was developed in our country. With his invention, it became possible to produce the first space rockets in which a person could rise into orbit. Three-stage engines also opened up the possibility of flying to the moon.

Further, boosters have been more and more improved. So, in 1961, a four-stage model of a jet engine was created. With it, the rocket could reach not only the Moon, but also get to Mars or Venus.

First manned flight

The launch of a space rocket with a man on board took place for the first time on April 12, 1961. The Vostok spacecraft piloted by Yuri Gagarin took off from the Earth's surface. This event was epochal for mankind. In April 1961 space exploration received its new development. The transition to manned flights required designers to create such aircraft that could return to Earth, safely overcoming the layers of the atmosphere. In addition, a human life support system was to be provided on the space rocket, including air regeneration, food, and much more. All these tasks were successfully solved.

Further space exploration

Vostok-type missiles for a long time helped to maintain the leading role of the USSR in the field of research into near-Earth airless space. Their use continues to the present day. Until 1964, Vostok aircraft surpassed all existing analogues in terms of their carrying capacity.

Somewhat later, more powerful carriers were created in our country and in the USA. The name of space rockets of this type, designed in our country, is Proton-M. American similar device - "Delta-IV". In Europe, the Ariane-5 launch vehicle, belonging to the heavy type, was designed. All these aircraft make it possible to launch 21-25 tons of cargo to a height of 200 km, where low earth orbit is located.

New developments

As part of the project of manned flight to the moon, launch vehicles belonging to the superheavy class were created. These are such US space rockets as the Saturn-5, as well as the Soviet H-1. Later, the super-heavy Energia rocket was created in the USSR, which is currently not used. The Space Shuttle became a powerful American launch vehicle. This rocket made it possible to launch spacecraft weighing 100 tons into orbit.

Aircraft manufacturers

Space rockets were designed and built at OKB-1 (Special Design Bureau), TsKBEM (Central Design Bureau of Experimental Engineering), as well as at NPO (Scientific and Production Association) Energia. It was here that domestic ballistic missiles of all types saw the light. Eleven strategic complexes came out of here, which our army adopted. Through the efforts of the employees of these enterprises, the R-7 was also created - the first space rocket, which is considered the most reliable in the world at the present time. Since the middle of the last century, these production facilities initiated and carried out work in all areas related to. Since 1994, the enterprise received a new name, becoming RSC Energia OJSC.

Space rocket manufacturer today

RSC Energia im. S.P. The Queen is a strategic enterprise of Russia. It plays a leading role in the development and production of manned space systems. Much attention at the enterprise is paid to the creation of new technologies. Specialized automatic space systems are being developed here, as well as launch vehicles for launching aircraft into orbit. In addition, RSC Energia is actively implementing high-tech technologies for the production of products that are not related to the development of airless space.

As part of this enterprise, in addition to the head design bureau, there are:

CJSC "Plant of experimental engineering".

CJSC PO Cosmos.

CJSC "Volzhskoye KB".

Branch "Baikonur".

by the most promising programs enterprises are:

Issues of further space exploration and the creation of a manned transport space system of the latest generation;

Development of manned aircraft capable of mastering interplanetary space;

Design and creation of energy and telecommunication space systems using special small-sized reflectors and antennas.

Today no one doubts that defense doctrines of the leading states are military space. The strategic American concept of a rapid global strike, among other things, provides for the widespread deployment of space platforms for launching weapons. Not to mention the fundamental increase in the satellite constellation of support. To repel a possible counterattack, a comprehensive missile defense program is being stepped up. Russia has its own principled approach to such a challenge of the times.

We will answer with a grain of salt...

Let's start with the Americans. And immediately from the output. American military-strategic planning does not provide for the creation of new systems of nuclear missile weapons in the foreseeable future. Certain work in this direction, of course, is being carried out, but it does not go beyond the scope of R&D, in extreme cases, R&D. In other words, they are going to “dominate” in military-technical terms without relying on nuclear weapons.

Indicative in this regard are recent studies by the California Institute for International Studies and the James Martin Center for Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. As for ICBMs, at the end of last year, the US Air Force began to analyze the possibilities of replacing existing missiles a new model, but nothing concrete has yet come out. The costs of the relevant R&D are modest - less than $100 million.

The last time the ground-based American nuclear component was re-equipped in the mid-80s with the MX Peekeper missile, which was subsequently removed from combat duty. Be that as it may, only the Minuteman-3 ICBM, a 40-year-old development, is in service in the United States today.

According to the above sources the Trident-2 SLBM currently in service will remain in this status until 2042. Something new for the Navy won't come off the drawing boards until 2030 at the earliest.

The US Air Force currently has 94 strategic bombers in service: 76 V-52H and 18 V-2A, the development of which began in the early 50s and late 70s, respectively. The fleet of these machines will be operated for another three decades. There are plans to create a promising strike long-range bomber LRS-B (Long Range Strike-Bomber), but the sources do not have any details about this program.

On the other hand, there is a forcing of the US space defense programs, in particular, capable of long-term flight, which is necessary, for example, to service orbital-based platforms missile weapons and satellite constellations.

The Americans don't want to get involved with nuclear weapons, for obvious reasons. Today, the threat of local armed conflicts is more likely than a couple of decades ago. Fighting with varying degrees of intensity is increasingly necessary. Nuclear weapons in this case are simply not suitable by definition. Of course, it can be used in a preemptive strike, which is tantamount to aggression, or as the last trump card when it comes to the existence of the country in principle.

But the one who first decides on nuclear madness will immediately become a world outcast with all the consequences, regardless of the most noble reasons that prompted the discovery of atomic "zinc".

Today we need effective, and most importantly, real shooting based on high-precision ballistic and cruise missiles, including aerospace-based ones.

The rate of the Russian Armed Forces, as before, is placed on nuclear forces, and with a traditional emphasis on ground systems. Solid fuel monoblock "Topol" various ways basing for Lately“Given” already two modifications with MIRV. We are talking about the adopted missile and RS-26 Avangard, which, according to the statement of the commander of the Strategic Missile Forces, Colonel-General Sergei Karakaev, is planned to be put on combat duty in 2015.

Interestingly, as the reason for the creation of the RS-26 Avangard complex, the Commander-in-Chief of the Strategic Missile Forces called, among other things, opposition to the American global strike. But it turns out that this is not enough. Even taking into account the famous "Satan", which is discussed below.

On the last day of spring, Deputy Defense Minister Yuri Borisov confirmed the development of a new silo-based heavy liquid-propellant ICBM with the working title "Sarmat". " In the midst of work on a heavy rocket. A number of R&D activities are being carried out related to preempting the threat associated with a global strike from the United States. I believe that this component (strategic nuclear forces) by the end of 2020 will be re-equipped not by 70 percent, but by all 100».

At the end of February, the former head of the leading rocket and space research center, NII-4 of the Ministry of Defense, Major General Vladimir Vasilenko spoke about the tasks in connection with the new development:

« The military expediency of creating a heavy liquid ICBM is due to the need to counteract the deployment of a global missile defense system, in other words, deterrence from the deployment of missile defense systems. Why? It is the heavy silo-based ICBM that makes it possible not only to deliver warheads to targets along energetically optimal trajectories with rigid, and therefore predictable, approach azimuths, but also to strike from various directions, including the delivery of warheads through the South Pole».

«… Such a property of a heavy ICBM: the multidirectional approach azimuths to the target forces the opposing side to provide all-round missile defense. And it is much more difficult to organize, especially in finance, than a sectoral missile defense system. This is a very strong factor. Vasilenko noted. - In addition, a huge payload reserve on a heavy ICBM allows it to be equipped with various means of penetrating missile defense systems, which ultimately oversaturate any missile defense system: both its information assets and strike».

What conclusions can be drawn from everything read and heard?

First. The probable, potential and any other adversary for us, as before, is the United States. This fact is emphasized at the highest levels, for example, at the recent “ round table” in the State Duma on the sore, difficult to solve problem of aerospace defense.

Second. On the whole, we oppose to both offensive and defensive American strategic non-nuclear initiatives exclusively offensive nuclear programs.

Third. If we successfully implement our plans with a new rocket, we will become the first country ready to put into space nuclear weapon. This process, meanwhile, is objective. No one disputes the fact that outer space is a potential theater of military operations. That is, the weapons there, depending on the chosen direction - nuclear, kinetic, laser, etc. - are only a matter of time. Moreover, placing nuclear weapons in space is far from a new idea.

"Global Rocket" by Nikita Khrushchev

As soon as, following the principle of nuclear fission, it was possible to release a myriad of energy, and the mind of Oppenheimer and Kurchatov concluded it in "Fat Men", "Kids" and other "products", the idea arose to deploy such a weapon in Earth's orbit.

In the late 1940s and early 1950s, the Germans, who at that time were generating American military space thought, proposed outer space as a base for nuclear charges. In 1948 right hand Wernher von Braun - the head of the German rocket center in Panemünde, Walter Dornberger, proposed placing atomic bombs in near-Earth orbit. In principle, there are no “closed” territories for bombardment from space, and such weapons are presented effective tool intimidation.

In September 1952, at the peak of the Korean War, von Braun himself proposed a project for orbital stations, which, in addition to conducting reconnaissance, could serve as launch pads for missiles with nuclear warheads.

However, tight-fisted Americans quickly figured out what it would cost them to build orbital complexes with weapons of mass destruction. In addition, the accuracy of orbital bombs left much to be desired, since at that time it was not possible to develop the proper orientation system necessary to accurately determine the position of the weapon relative to the target. And there was absolutely no technology for maneuvering warheads in the final atmospheric section.

In the middle of the last century, the United States gave preference to land-based and sea-based ICBMs. Another thing is the USSR. «… We can launch rockets not only through the North Pole, but in the opposite direction too", - announced to the whole world in March 1962, the then leader Soviet Union Nikita Khrushchev. This meant that the missile warheads would now fly to the United States not along the shortest ballistic trajectory, but would go into orbit, make a half-circle around the Earth and appear from where they were not expected, where they did not create warning and countermeasures.

Lied, of course, Comrade Khrushchev, but not completely. The design bureau of Sergei Korolev has been working on the GR-1 rocket project since 1961. The forty-meter three-stage rocket was equipped with a nuclear warhead weighing 1500 kg. The third stage just helped to put it into orbit. The firing range of such a missile had no limitations by itself.

On May 9, as well as at the November 1965 parade, hefty ballistic missiles were carried across Red Square. These were the new GR-1s. “... Giant rockets pass in front of the stands. These are orbital rockets. The warheads of orbital missiles are capable of inflicting sudden strikes on the aggressor on the first or any other orbit around the Earth, ”the announcer happily broadcast.

The Americans demanded an explanation. Indeed, back on October 17, 1963, the UN General Assembly adopted resolution 18884, which called on all countries to refrain from launching into orbit or placing in space nuclear weapons. To which the Soviet Foreign Ministry explained: the resolution de bans the use of such weapons, but not their development.

True, the rockets that were carried through Red Square remained mock-ups. The Royal Design Bureau failed to create a combat model of the GR. Although an alternative project of partially orbital bombardment of Mikhail Yangel's design bureau based on the R-36 - R-36 orb ICBM remained in reserve. It was already a truly orbital nuclear weapon. A two-stage rocket 33 meters long was equipped with a warhead with an instrument compartment for warhead orientation and deceleration systems. The TNT equivalent of a nuclear charge was 20 megatons!

System R-36 orb. consisting of 18 silo-based missiles, it was put into service on November 19, 1968 and deployed in a special position area at Baikonur.

Through 1971, these missiles were fired several times as part of test launches. One of them still "got" the United States. At the end of December 1969, during the next launch, a mock-up warhead, which received the traditionally peaceful designation of the Kosmos-316 satellite. For some reason, this very "Cosmos" was not blown up in orbit, like its predecessors, but under the influence of gravity entered the atmosphere, partially collapsed and woke up as debris on American territory.

Under the SALT-2 treaty, concluded in 1979, the USSR and the USA pledged that combat missiles would not be placed on test sites. By the summer of 1984, all R-36 orb. were removed from combat duty, and the mines were blown up.

But, as you know, a bad example is contagious. Developing from the end of the 70s a new ICBM MX "Pekeper", the Americans could not decide on the method of basing. The Air Force command rightly believed that it would not be difficult for the fantastic strike power of the Soviet ground-based nuclear forces at the time to destroy most of the positional areas of American continental ICBMs in the first strike.

Fear has big eyes. Very exotic methods have been proposed. For example, to anchor the rockets on seabed near native shores. Or drop them for greater safety at sea after receiving a "strategic warning" from surface ships and submarines. Calls were made to launch the warheads of missiles in the event of a crisis to a "waiting orbit", from where, in the event of an unfavorable development of events, to retarget the warheads to ground targets.

To whom "Voevoda", to whom "Satan"

Today, speaking about plans to develop a new heavy liquid ICBM to solve the corresponding tasks, we must not forget that the Strategic Missile Forces already have a similar complex, although without "orbital" capabilities, which by no means detracts from its merits. We are talking about the same R-36 project, which formed the basis of the famous line of Russian ICBMs.

In August 1983, a decision was made to deeply modify the R-36M UTTKh missile, an early brainchild of the R-36, so that it could overcome the promising American missile defense system. In addition, it was necessary to increase the protection of the rocket and the entire complex from the action of damaging factors. nuclear explosion. So born missile system fourth generation, designated in official documents US Defense and NATO SS-18 Mod.5 / Mod.6 and the formidable name "Satan", which is fully consistent with its combat capabilities. In Russian open sources, this ICBM has the designation RS-20.

ICBM "Voevoda" is capable of hitting all types of targets protected by modern missile defense systems in any conditions of combat use, including with multiple nuclear impact on the positional area. Thus, the conditions are provided for the implementation of the strategy of a guaranteed retaliatory strike - the possibility of providing missile launches in conditions of ground and high-altitude nuclear explosions. This was achieved by increasing the survivability of the missile in the silo launcher and a significant increase in resistance to the damaging factors of a nuclear explosion in flight. The ICBM is equipped with a MIRV-type MIRV with 10 warheads.

Flight design tests of the R-36M2 complex began at Baikonur in 1986. The first missile regiment with this ICBM went on combat duty on July 30, 1988. Since then, the rocket has been fired successfully several times. According to the official statements of the Strategic Missile Forces command, its operation is possible for at least another 20 years..

This article will introduce the reader to such an interesting topic as a space rocket, a launch vehicle and all the useful experience that this invention has brought to mankind. It will also be told about payloads delivered into outer space. Space exploration began not so long ago. In the USSR, this was the middle of the Third Five-Year Plan, when the Second World War. The space rocket was developed in many countries, but even the United States failed to overtake us at that stage.

First

The first in a successful launch to leave the USSR was a space launch vehicle with an artificial satellite on board on October 4, 1957. The PS-1 satellite was successfully launched into low Earth orbit. It should be noted that for this it took six generations, and only the seventh generation of Russian space rockets were able to develop the speed necessary for reaching near-Earth space - eight kilometers per second. Otherwise, it is impossible to overcome the attraction of the Earth.

This became possible in the process of developing long-range ballistic weapons, where engine boosting was used. Not to be confused: a space rocket and a spaceship are two different things. A rocket is a delivery vehicle, and a ship is attached to it. Instead, there can be anything - a space rocket can carry a satellite, equipment, and a nuclear warhead, which has always served and still serves as a deterrent for nuclear powers and an incentive to preserve peace.

Story

The first to theoretically substantiate the launch of a space rocket were the Russian scientists Meshchersky and Tsiolkovsky, who already in 1897 described the theory of its flight. Much later this idea was picked up by Oberth and von Braun from Germany and Goddard from the USA. It was in these three countries that work began on the problems of jet propulsion, the creation of solid-fuel and liquid-propellant jet engines. Best of all, these issues were resolved in Russia, at least solid-fuel engines were already widely used in World War II ("Katyusha"). Liquid-propellant jet engines turned out better in Germany, which created the first ballistic missile - the V-2.

After the war, the team of Wernher von Braun, having taken drawings and developments, found shelter in the USA, and the USSR was forced to be content with a small number of individual rocket assemblies without any supporting documentation. The rest they invented themselves. Rocket technology developed rapidly, increasing the range and mass of the load carried more and more. In 1954, work began on the project, thanks to which the USSR was the first to carry out the flight of a space rocket. It was an intercontinental two-stage ballistic missile R-7, which was soon upgraded for space. It turned out to be a success - exceptionally reliable, providing many records in space exploration. In a modernized form, it is still used today.

"Sputnik" and "Moon"

In 1957, the first space rocket - that same R-7 - launched the artificial Sputnik-1 into orbit. The United States later decided to repeat such a launch. However, in the first attempt, their space rocket did not go into space, it exploded at the start - even in live. "Vanguard" was designed by a purely American team, and he did not live up to expectations. Then Wernher von Braun took over the project, and in February 1958 the launch of the space rocket was a success. Meanwhile, in the USSR, the R-7 was modernized - a third stage was added to it. As a result, the speed of the space rocket became completely different - the second space rocket was reached, thanks to which it became possible to leave the Earth's orbit. A few more years, the R-7 series was modernized and improved. The engines of space rockets were changed, they experimented a lot with the third stage. The next attempts were successful. The speed of the space rocket made it possible not only to leave the Earth's orbit, but also to think about studying other planets of the solar system.

But first, the attention of mankind was almost completely riveted to the natural satellite of the Earth - the Moon. In 1959, a Soviet space station"Luna-1", which was supposed to make a hard landing on the lunar surface. However, due to insufficiently accurate calculations, the device passed somewhat by (six thousand kilometers) and rushed towards the Sun, where it settled into orbit. So our luminary got his first own artificial satellite - a random gift. But our natural satellite was not alone for long, and in the same 1959, Luna-2 flew to it, having completed its task absolutely correctly. A month later, "Luna-3" delivered us photos reverse side our night light. And in 1966, Luna 9 softly landed right in the Ocean of Storms, and we got panoramic views of the lunar surface. The lunar program continued for a long time, until the time when the American astronauts landed on it.

Yuri Gagarin

April 12 became one of the most significant days in our country. It is impossible to convey the power of national jubilation, pride, truly happiness when the world's first manned flight into space was announced. Yuri Gagarin became not only a national hero, he was applauded by the whole world. And therefore, April 12, 1961, a day that triumphantly went down in history, became Cosmonautics Day. The Americans urgently tried to respond to this unprecedented step in order to share space glory with us. A month later, Alan Shepard took off, but the ship did not go into orbit, it was a suborbital flight in an arc, and the US orbital only turned out in 1962.

Gagarin flew into space on the Vostok spacecraft. This is a special machine in which Korolev created an exceptionally successful space platform that solves many different practical problems. At the same time, at the very beginning of the sixties, not only a manned version of space flight was being developed, but a photo reconnaissance project was also completed. "Vostok" generally had many modifications - more than forty. And today satellites from the Bion series are in operation - these are direct descendants of the ship on which the first manned flight into space was made. In the same 1961, German Titov had a much more difficult expedition, who spent the whole day in space. The United States was able to repeat this achievement only in 1963.

"East"

An ejection seat was provided for cosmonauts on all Vostok spacecraft. This was a wise decision, since a single device performed tasks both at the start (emergency rescue of the crew) and a soft landing of the descent vehicle. Designers have focused their efforts on the development of one device, not two. This reduced the technical risk; in aviation, the catapult system was already well developed at that time. On the other hand, a huge gain in time than if you design a fundamentally new device. After all, the space race continued, and the USSR won it by a fairly large margin.

Titov landed in the same way. He was lucky to parachute about railway, along which the train was traveling, and journalists immediately photographed it. The landing system, which has become the most reliable and soft, was developed in 1965, it uses a gamma altimeter. She still serves today. The US did not have this technology, which is why all their descent vehicles, even the new Dragon SpaceX, do not land, but splash down. Only shuttles are an exception. And in 1962, the USSR had already begun group flights on the Vostok-3 and Vostok-4 spacecraft. In 1963, the detachment of Soviet cosmonauts was replenished with the first woman - Valentina Tereshkova went into space, becoming the first in the world. At the same time, Valery Bykovsky set the record for the duration of a solo flight, which has not been beaten so far - he spent five days in space. In 1964, the Voskhod multi-seat ship appeared, and the United States lagged behind by a whole year. And in 1965, Alexei Leonov went into outer space!

"Venus"

In 1966, the USSR began interplanetary flights. The spacecraft "Venera-3" made a hard landing on a neighboring planet and delivered there the globe of the Earth and the pennant of the USSR. In 1975, Venera 9 managed to make a soft landing and transmit an image of the planet's surface. And Venera-13 made color panoramic pictures and sound recordings. The AMS series (automatic interplanetary stations) for the study of Venus, as well as the surrounding outer space, continues to be improved even now. On Venus, the conditions are harsh, and there was practically no reliable information about them, the developers did not know anything about the pressure or temperature on the surface of the planet, all this naturally complicated the study.

The first series of descent vehicles even knew how to swim - just in case. Nevertheless, at first the flights were not successful, but later the USSR succeeded so much in the Venusian wanderings that this planet was called Russian. Venera-1 is the first spacecraft in the history of mankind, designed to fly to other planets and explore them. It was launched in 1961, communication was lost a week later due to overheating of the sensor. The station became uncontrollable and was only able to make the world's first flyby near Venus (at a distance of about one hundred thousand kilometers).

In the footsteps

"Venus-4" helped us to know that on this planet two hundred and seventy-one degrees in the shade (the night side of Venus), the pressure is up to twenty atmospheres, and the atmosphere itself is ninety percent carbon dioxide. This spacecraft also discovered the hydrogen corona. "Venera-5" and "Venera-6" told us a lot about solar wind(plasma flows) and its structure near the planet. "Venera-7" specified data on temperature and pressure in the atmosphere. Everything turned out to be even more complicated: the temperature closer to the surface was 475 ± 20°C, and the pressure was an order of magnitude higher. Literally everything was redone on the next spacecraft, and after one hundred and seventeen days, Venera-8 softly landed on the day side of the planet. This station had a photometer and many additional instruments. The main thing was the connection.

It turned out that the lighting on the nearest neighbor is almost no different from the earth - like ours on a cloudy day. Yes, it’s not just cloudy there, the weather cleared up for real. Pictures seen by the equipment simply stunned earthlings. In addition, the soil and the amount of ammonia in the atmosphere were studied, and the wind speed was measured. And "Venus-9" and "Venus-10" were able to show us the "neighbor" on TV. These are the world's first recordings transmitted from another planet. And these stations themselves are now artificial satellites of Venus. Venera-15 and Venera-16 were the last to fly to this planet, which also became satellites, having previously provided mankind with absolutely new and necessary knowledge. In 1985, the program was continued by Vega-1 and Vega-2, which studied not only Venus, but also Halley's comet. The next flight is planned for 2024.

Something about space rocket

Since the parameters and specifications all rockets differ from each other, consider a new generation launch vehicle, for example, Soyuz-2.1A. It is a three-stage medium-class rocket, a modified version of the Soyuz-U, which has been in operation with great success since 1973.

This launch vehicle is designed to ensure the launch of spacecraft. The latter may have military, economic and social purposes. This rocket can take them to different types orbits - geostationary, geotransitional, sun-synchronous, highly elliptical, medium, low.

Modernization

The rocket has been completely modernized, a fundamentally different digital control system has been created here, developed on a new domestic element base, with a high-speed on-board digital computer with a much larger amount of RAM. The digital control system provides the rocket with high-precision launch of payloads.

In addition, engines were installed on which the injector heads of the first and second stages were improved. Another telemetry system is in operation. Thus, the accuracy of launching the rocket, its stability and, of course, controllability have increased. The mass of the space rocket did not increase, and the useful payload increased by three hundred kilograms.

Specifications

The first and second stages of the launch vehicle are equipped with RD-107A and RD-108A liquid-propellant rocket engines from NPO Energomash named after Academician Glushko, and a four-chamber RD-0110 from the Khimavtomatika design bureau is installed on the third stage. Rocket fuel is liquid oxygen, which is an environmentally friendly oxidizer, as well as low-toxic fuel - kerosene. The length of the rocket is 46.3 meters, the mass at the start is 311.7 tons, and without the warhead - 303.2 tons. The mass of the launch vehicle structure is 24.4 tons. The fuel components weigh 278.8 tons. Flight tests of Soyuz-2.1A began in 2004 at the Plesetsk cosmodrome, and they were successful. In 2006, the launch vehicle made its first commercial flight - it launched the European meteorological spacecraft Metop into orbit.

It must be said that rockets have different payload output capabilities. Carriers are light, medium and heavy. The Rokot launch vehicle, for example, launches spacecraft into near-Earth low orbits - up to two hundred kilometers, and therefore it can carry a load of 1.95 tons. But the Proton is a heavy class, it can put 22.4 tons into low orbit, 6.15 tons into geotransitional orbit, and 3.3 tons into geostationary orbit. The carrier rocket we are considering is designed for all sites used by Roskosmos: Kuru, Baikonur, Plesetsk, Vostochny, and operates within the framework of joint Russian-European projects.

In 1962, the USSR began the development of three projects of so-called global or orbital rockets - R-36-0 in OKB-586 of Mikhail Yangel, GR-1 in OKB-1 of Sergey Korolev and UR-200A in OKB-52 of Vladimir Chelomey. Only the R-36-0 was adopted for service (the press also gives a variant of the name R-36 orb).

The development of the rocket in OKB-586 under the leadership of Mikhail Yangel began on April 16, 1962 after the government decree "On the creation of samples of intercontinental ballistic and global rockets and carriers of heavy space objects" was issued. "Orbital missiles provide the following advantages over ballistic missiles:

unlimited flight range, which allows hitting targets inaccessible to ballistic intercontinental missiles;

the possibility of hitting the same target from two mutually opposite directions;

shorter flight time of the orbital warhead compared to the flight time of the warhead of ballistic missiles (when launching an orbital rocket in the shortest direction);

the impossibility of predicting the area where the warhead of the warhead will fall when moving in the orbital sector;

the possibility of ensuring satisfactory accuracy of hitting the target at very long launch ranges.

The main advantage of the R-36 Orb orbital rocket. was its ability to effectively overcome the enemy's anti-missile defense ". (Intercontinental ballistic missiles of the USSR (RF) and the USA. History of creation, development and reduction / Edited by E.B. Volkov. - M .: RVSN, 1996. P. 135 ).

The energy capabilities of the R-36 rocket made it possible to launch a nuclear warhead into space into low orbit. The mass of the warhead and the power of the warhead were reduced, but the most important quality was achieved - invulnerability to missile defense systems. The missile could strike US territory not from the north, where a missile defense system with missile attack warning stations was being built, but from the south, where the United States did not have a missile defense system.

The preliminary design of a two-stage orbital rocket was developed in December 1962.

"In the orbital version (rocket 8K69), in addition to the warhead, the orbital warhead (ORB) of the rocket includes a control compartment. Here the propulsion system and control devices for orientation and stabilization of the warhead (MC) are located. The brake engine of the OGCh is single-chamber. Its turbopump unit (TNA) is started from a powder starter.The engine runs on the same propellant components as the rocket engines... Stabilization of the HF in pitch and yaw in the active deceleration section during descent from orbit is performed by four fixed nozzles operating on the exhaust gases of the turbine. in the nozzles is regulated by throttle devices.Roll stabilization is carried out by four tangentially located nozzles.The system of orientation, control and stabilization (CSOS) of the OGCh is autonomous, inertial.It is supplemented by a radio altimeter that controls the orbital height twice - at the beginning of the orbital segment and before applying the braking impulse.

The brake motor is mounted in the central part of the control compartment inside the toroidal fuel module. The adopted form of fuel tanks made it possible to make the layout of the compartment optimal and reduce the weight of its structure. Dividing nets and baffles are installed inside the fuel tanks to ensure the reliability of starting and operating the engine in a state of weightlessness, ensuring reliable cavitation-free operation of the engine pumps. The brake propulsion system creates an impulse, transferring the HCV from an orbital trajectory to a ballistic one. On combat duty, the HRC is stored, like a rocket, in a refueled state. 1997, p. 180).

The first stage of the rocket is equipped with an RD-261 main engine, consisting of three two-chamber RD-260 modules. The second stage is equipped with a two-chamber main engine RD-262. The engines were developed at Energomash Design Bureau under the direction of Valentin Glushko. The fuel components are UDMH and nitrogen tetroxide (AT).

The launch equipment units of the ground complex for testing the rocket at the Baikonur test site were developed at KBTM.

"With the creation of the complex (launch complex - ed.) 8P867, work at site No. 67 of Baikonur was not completed. When the next rocket 8K69 of the Yangel Design Bureau arrived, the second launch pad of this complex was reconstructed to ensure its flight testing. The new launch complex received the index 8P869 The similarity of the parameters and technology for the preparation of 8K69 and 8K67 rockets required the creation of a relatively small number of new launch units, seven of which were developed by GSKB (KBTM - ed.) and seven by related enterprises. Basically, ground equipment was modified and unified for both missiles . New complex was tested, was put into operation and in the period 1965-1966. ensured the preparation and launch of 4 missiles 8K69. - Moscow, 1998. P. 55. Initially, ampulization of the R-36-0, like the R-36 missiles, was not provided.

R-36-O on launcher

At the end of 1964, preparations for testing began at Baikonur. The first launch of the R-36-O was made on December 16, 1965. Testing completed in May 1968.

Recalls retired colonel Georgy Smyslovskikh:

"Testing of the R-36-O missile began at the end of 1965. The Deputy Head of the F.E. Dzerzhinsky Military Academy, Lieutenant General Fedor Petrovich Tonkikh, was appointed Chairman of the State Commission for Missile Testing. The first launch of the R-36-0 missile on December 16, 1965 of the year was emergency. During the completion of refueling the 2nd stage with fuel, in the receiver, from which the fuel tanks were pressurized with nitrogen, a nitrogen leak began. Considering that the nitrogen supply was for two refuelings, we could finish refueling when nitrogen was poisoned, but the head tests sent management specialists to the receiver, during the work of which, to search for nitrogen etching, a false command was sent to shoot the fillers of the 2nd stage. The fillers undocked, fuel poured from a height onto the concrete, ignited from the impact, and a fire started. "(The creators of nuclear missile weapons and veterans-rocketmen tell. - M .: TSIPK, 1996. P. 210). In 1966, four successful test launches were carried out.

"It should be noted that in December 1965 (the date needs to be clarified - author's note) the global rocket 8K69 was launched. warhead, which, having made one revolution around the Earth, fell into a given area with deviations from the calculated point of impact in range and direction, corresponding to those specified by the tactical and technical requirements of the Ministry of Defense (TTT MO).(Baikonur. Korolev. Yangel / Compiled by M. I. Kuznetsky. - Voronezh: IPF "Voronezh", 1997. P. 181).

By a government decree on November 19, 1968, the R-36-0 orbital rocket was put into service. The complexes in the silo OS were put on combat duty at the Baikonur training ground on August 25, 1969. Serial production is deployed at the Southern Machine-Building Plant in Dnepropetrovsk.

18 launchers R-36-0 orbital missiles with nuclear warheads were deployed by 1972 in a single positional area - at the Baikonur test site.

The missile brigade for the operation of the R-36-0 was formed in October 1969. By July 1979, on the basis of the brigade administration, as well as the administrations of individual engineering test units that launched the R-36 and R-16 missiles, the administration of individual engineering test units (OIICh) was formed at Baikonur.

In 1982, the Baikonur test site was transferred to the Main Directorate of Space Facilities of the Ministry of Defense (GU-KOS). In January 1983, in accordance with the SALT-2 treaty, the R-36-0 missile system was removed from combat duty. By November 1, 1983, the management of the OIICh at Baikonur was disbanded.