Polovtsy (11-13th centuries) - a nomadic people of Turkic origin, who became one of the main serious political opponents of the princes Ancient Rus'.

At the beginning of the 11th c. The Polovtsy moved out of the Trans-Volga region, where they had lived before, towards the Black Sea steppes, displacing the tribes of the Pechenegs and Torks along the way. After crossing the Dnieper, they reached the lower reaches of the Danube, occupying the vast territories of the Great Steppe - from the Danube to the Irtysh. In the same period, the steppes occupied by the Polovtsy began to be called the Polovtsian steppes (in Russian chronicles) and Desht-i-Kypchak (in the chronicles of other peoples).

Name of the people

The people also have the names "Kipchaks" and "Kumans". Each term has its own meaning and appeared in special conditions. So, the name “Polovtsy”, generally accepted on the territory of Ancient Rus', came from the word “stripes”, which means “yellow”, and came into use due to the fact that the early representatives of this people had blond (“yellow”) hair.

The concept of "Kipchak" was first used after a serious internecine war in the 7th century. among the Turkic tribes, when the loser nobility began to call themselves "Kipchak" ("ill-fated"). The Cumans were called the Polovtsy in Byzantine and Western European chronicles.

History of the people

The Polovtsy were an independent people for several centuries, but by the middle of the 13th century. became part of the Golden Horde and assimilated the Tatar-Mongol conquerors, passing on to them part of their culture and their language. Later, on the basis of the Kypchan language (which was spoken by the Polovtsy), Tatar, Kazakh, Kumyk and many other languages ​​were formed.

The Polovtsy led a life typical of many nomadic peoples. Their main occupation was cattle breeding. In addition, they were engaged in trade. A little later, the Polovtsy changed their nomadic lifestyle to a more sedentary one, certain parts of the tribe were assigned certain land plots where people could run their household.

The Polovtsy were pagans, professed Tangerianism (worship of Tengri Khan, the eternal radiance of the sky), worshiped animals (in particular, the wolf was, in the understanding of the Polovtsy, their totem ancestor). Shamans lived in the tribes, who performed various rituals of worshiping nature and the earth.

Kievan Rus and Cumans

The Polovtsy are very often mentioned in ancient Russian chronicles, and this is primarily due to their difficult relationship with the Russians. Starting from 1061 and up to 1210, the Polovtsian tribes constantly committed cruelty, plundered villages and tried to seize local territories. In addition to many small raids, one can count about 46 major Polovtsian raids on Kievan Rus.

First major battle between the Polovtsy and the Russians took place on February 2, 1061 near Pereyaslavl, when the Polovtsian tribe raided Russian territories, burned several fields and robbed the villages located there. The Polovtsians quite often managed to defeat the Russian army. So, in 1068 they defeated Russian army Yaroslavichi, and in 1078, during the next battle with the Polovtsian tribes, Prince Izyaslav Yaroslavich died.

The troops of Svyatopolk, Vladimir Monomakh (who later led the all-Russian campaigns of Rus' against the Polovtsy) and Rostislav also fell from the hands of these nomads during the battle in 1093. In 1094, the Polovtsy reached the point that Vladimir Monomakh was forced to leave Chernigov by force. However, the Russian princes constantly collected retaliatory campaigns against the Polovtsy, which sometimes ended quite successfully. In 1096, the Polovtsy suffered their first defeat in the struggle against Kievan Rus. In 1103 they were again defeated by the Russian army under the leadership of Svyatopolk and Vladimir and were forced to leave the previously occupied territories and go to serve in the Caucasus to the local king.

The Polovtsy were finally defeated in 1111 by Vladimir Monomakh and the Russian army of many thousands, which launched a crusade against its longtime opponents and invaders of Russian territories. To avoid final ruin, the Polovtsian tribes were forced to go back across the Danube and into Georgia (the tribe was divided). However, after the death of Vladimir Monomakh, the Polovtsy were able to return again and began to repeat their early raids, but very quickly went over to the side of the Russian princes warring among themselves and began to take part in the permanent on the territory of Rus', supporting one or another prince. Participated in raids on Kyiv.

Another major campaign of the Russian army against the Polovtsy, which was reported in the annals, took place in 1185. famous work"The Lay of Igor's Campaign" this event is called a massacre with the Polovtsians. Igor's campaign, unfortunately, was unsuccessful. He failed to defeat the Polovtsy, but this battle entered the annals. Some time after this event, the raids began to fade away, the Polovtsians split up, some of them converted to Christianity and mixed with the local population.

End of the Cuman tribe

The once strong tribe, which brought a lot of inconvenience to the Russian princes, ceased to exist as an independent and independent people around the middle of the 13th century. The campaigns of the Tatar-Mongol Khan Batu led to the fact that the Polovtsians actually became part of the Golden Horde and (although they did not lose their culture, but, on the contrary, passed it on) ceased to be independent.

In the middle of the XI century, Kievan Rus faced a serious threat in the face of the Polovtsy. These nomads came from the Asian steppes and captured the Black Sea region. The Polovtsians (or Cumans) ousted their predecessors, the Pechenegs, from these places. The new steppes differed little from the old ones. They lived by robberies and invasions of neighboring countries, in which the settled population lived.

New threat

The appearance of nomads coincided with the beginning of the process of political disintegration of Rus'. The East Slavic state was united until the 11th century, when its territory was divided into several small principalities. Each of them was ruled by an independent native of the Russian princes. The struggle of the Russian princes with the Polovtsy was complicated by this fragmentation.

The rulers often quarreled among themselves, staged internecine wars and made their own country vulnerable to the steppes. In addition, some princes began to hire nomads for money. The presence in the army of its own small horde became an important advantage on the battlefield. All these factors combined led to the fact that Rus' for almost two centuries was in a state of constant conflict with the Polovtsians.

First blood

For the first time, nomads invaded the territory of Rus' in 1054. Their appearance coincided with the death of Yaroslav the Wise. Today he is considered the last prince of Kyiv, who ruled all of Russia. After him, the throne passed to the eldest son Izyaslav. However, Yaroslav had several more offspring. Each of them received an inheritance (part of the state), although formally they were subordinate to Izyaslav. The second son of Yaroslav, Svyatoslav, ruled in Chernigov, and the third, Vsevolod Yaroslavich, received Pereyaslavl. This city was located a little east of Kyiv and was closest to the steppe. That is why the Polovtsy often attacked the Principality of Pereyaslav in the first place.

When the nomads first appeared on Russian soil, Vsevolod managed to negotiate with them by sending an embassy with gifts to the uninvited guests. Peace was concluded between the parties. However, it could not be durable, since the steppe dwellers lived by robbing their neighbors.

The Horde again invaded in 1061. This time, many peaceful defenseless villages were plundered and destroyed. Nomads never stayed in Rus' for long. Their horses were afraid of winter, in addition, the animals had to be fed. Therefore, raids were made in the spring or summer. After a break for autumn and winter, the southern guests returned.

Defeat of the Yaroslavichs

The armed struggle of the Russian princes with the Polovtsy was at first unsystematic. The rulers of the destinies could not fight the huge hordes alone. This state of affairs made an alliance between the Russian princes vital. The sons of Yaroslav the Wise knew how to negotiate among themselves, so in their era there were no problems with coordinating actions.

In 1068, the united squad of the Yaroslavichi met with the steppe army, led by Sharukan. The place of the battle was the bank of the Alta River near Pereyaslavl. The princes were defeated, they had to flee from the battlefield in a hurry. After the battle, Izyaslav and Vsevolod returned to Kyiv. They had neither the strength nor the means to organize a new campaign against the Polovtsians. The apathy of the princes led to an uprising of the population, tired of the constant raids of the steppes and seeing the inability of their rulers to oppose this terrible threat. The people of Kiev convened a people's assembly. Residents of the city demanded that the authorities arm ordinary citizens. When this ultimatum was ignored, the dissatisfied smashed the dwelling of the governor. Prince Izyaslav had to hide from the Polish king.

Meanwhile, the Polovtsian raids on Rus' continued. In the absence of Izyaslav, his younger brother Svyatoslav in the same 1068 defeated the steppes in the battle on the Snova River. Sharukan was taken prisoner. This first victory made it possible to temporarily paralyze the nomads.

Polovtsy in the service of princes

Although the Polovtsian raids ceased, the steppes continued to appear on Russian soil. The reason for this was that nomads began to be hired by Russian princes who fought each other in internecine conflicts. The first such case took place in 1076. The son of Vsevolod Yaroslavovich Vladimir Monomakh, together with the Polovtsy, devastated the lands of the Polotsk prince Vseslav.

In the same year, Svyatoslav, who had previously occupied Kyiv, died. His death allowed Izyaslav to return to the capital and become a prince again. Chernigov (the inheritance of Svyatoslav) was occupied by Vsevolod. Thus, the brothers left their nephews Roman and Oleg without the lands they should have received from their father. The children of Svyatoslav did not have their own squad. But the Polovtsy went to fight with them. Often nomads went to war at the call of the princes, without even asking for a reward, since they received the reward during the robberies of peaceful villages and cities.

However, such an alliance was dangerous. Although in 1078 the Svyatoslavichs defeated Izyaslav in the battle on Nezhatina Niva (the Kiev ruler died in battle), very soon Prince Roman himself was killed by the Polovtsy, whom he called after him.

Battle on Stugna

At the end of the XI - beginning of the XII centuries. Vladimir Monomakh became the main fighter against the steppe threat. The Polovtsy decided to reassert themselves in 1092, when Vsevolod, who then ruled in Kyiv, fell seriously ill. Nomads often attacked Rus' when the country was left without power or it was weakened. This time, the Polovtsy decided that Vsevolod's illness would not allow the people of Kiev to gather strength and repel the attack.

The first invasion went unpunished. The Cumans, meeting no resistance, calmly returned to their places of winter wanderings. The campaigns were then led by Khan Tugorkan and Khan Bonyak. A powerful onslaught of the steppes after a long break became possible after the hordes scattered for several years united around these two leaders.

Everything favored the Polovtsy. Vsevolod Yaroslavich died in 1093. In Kyiv, the inexperienced nephew of the deceased, Svyatopolk Yaroslavovich, began to rule. Tugorkan, together with his horde, laid siege to Torchesk, an important city in Porosie on the southern borders of Rus'. Soon the defenders learned about the approaching help. The Russian princes for a while forgot about mutual claims to each other and gathered their squads for a campaign in the steppe. This army included the regiments of Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich, Vladimir Monomakh and his younger brother Rostislav Vsevolodovich.

The united squad was defeated in the battle on the Stugna River, which took place on May 26, 1093. The first blow of the Polovtsy fell on the people of Kiev, who faltered and fled from the battlefield. Behind them were defeated Chernigov. The army was pressed to the river. The warriors had to swim across the river in a hurry right in the armor. Many of them simply drowned, including Rostislav Vsevolodovich. Vladimir Monomakh tried to save his brother, but he could not help him get out of the seething stream of Stugna. After the victory, the Polovtsy returned to Torchesk and finally took the city. The defenders of the fortress surrendered. They were taken into captivity, and the city was put on fire. Story Kievan Rus overshadowed by one of the most devastating and terrible defeats.

Backstab

Despite heavy losses, the struggle of the Russian princes with the Polovtsians continued. In 1094, Oleg Svyatoslavovich, who continued to fight for his father's inheritance, laid siege to Monomakh in Chernigov. Vladimir Vsevolodovich left the city, after which it was given to the nomads for plunder. After the concession of Chernigov, the conflict with Oleg was settled. However, soon the Polovtsy laid siege to Pereyaslavl and appeared under the walls of Kyiv. The steppe people took advantage of the absence of strong squads in the south of the country, who went north to participate in another civil strife on Rostov land. In that war, the son of Vladimir Monomakh, Prince Izyaslav of Murom, died. Meanwhile, Tugorkan was already close to starving Pereyaslavl.

At the very last moment, a team came to the rescue of the city, returning from the north. It was led by Vladimir Monomakh and Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich. Decisive battle occurred on July 19, 1096. The Russian princes finally defeated the Polovtsians. This was the first major success of the Slavic weapons in the confrontation with the steppes in the last 30 years. Under a powerful blow, the Polovtsy rushed in all directions. In this pursuit, Tugorkan died along with his son. The following year, after the victory at Trubezh, the Russian princes gathered at the famous congress in Lyubech. At this meeting, the Rurikovich settled their own relations. The hereditary inheritances of the late Svyatoslav finally returned to his children. Now the princes could come to grips with the problem of the Polovtsy, on which Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich insisted, who formally continued to be considered a senior.

Hiking in the steppe

At first, the struggle of the Russian princes with the Polovtsy did not go beyond the borders of Rus'. The squads gathered only if the nomads threatened the Slavic cities and villages. This tactic was ineffective. Even if the Polovtsians were defeated, they returned to their own steppes, gained strength again, and after a while again crossed the border.

Monomakh understood that a fundamentally new strategy was needed against the nomads. In 1103, the Rurikovichs met at the next congress on the shores of Dolobskoye Lake. At the meeting, a general decision was made to go with the army to the steppe, to the lair of the enemy. Thus began the military campaigns of the Russian princes in the places of nomadic Polovtsy. Svyatopolk of Kiev, Davyd Svyatoslavovich Chernigov, Vladimir Monomakh, Davyd Vseslavovich Polotsky and Monomakh's heir Yaropolk Vladimirovich took part in the campaign. After a general gathering in Pereyaslavl, the Russian army set off for the steppe in the early spring of 1103. The princes were in a hurry, hoping to overtake the enemy as soon as possible. Polovtsian horses needed a long rest after previous campaigns. In March, they were still weak, which should have been in the hands of the Slavic squad.

The history of Kievan Rus did not yet know such a military campaign. Not only cavalry, but also a large foot army went south. The princes counted on him if the cavalry got too tired after a long journey. The Polovtsians, having learned about the unexpected approach of the enemy, began to hastily gather a united army. Khan Urusoba stood at its head. Another 20 steppe princes brought their detachments. Decisive battle happened on April 4, 1103 on the banks of the Suteni River. The Polovtsy were defeated. Many of their princelings were killed or captured. Urusoba also died. The victory allowed Svyatopolk to rebuild the city of Yuryev on the Ros River, which was burned back in 1095 and had been empty for many years without inhabitants.

In the spring of 1097, the Polovtsy went on the offensive again. Khan Bonyak led the siege of the city of Luben, which belonged to the Principality of Pereyaslavl. Svyatopolk and Monomakh together defeated his army, meeting with him on the Sula River. Bonyak fled. However, the world was fragile. Subsequently, the military campaigns of the Russian princes were repeated (three times in 1109 - 1111). All of them were successful. The Polovtsy had to migrate away from the Russian borders. Some of them even moved to North Caucasus. For two decades, Rus' forgot about the threat of the Polovtsy. It is interesting that in 1111 Vladimir Monomakh organized a campaign by analogy with the Catholic Crusade to Palestine. The struggle of the Eastern Slavs and Polovtsy was also religious. The nomads were pagans (in the annals they were called "nasty"). In the same 1111, the Russian army reached the Don. This river became her last frontier. The Polovtsian cities of Sugrov and Sharukan, where the nomads wintered as usual, were captured and plundered.

long neighborhood

In Vladimir Monomakh became the prince of Kyiv. Under him and his son Mstislav (until 1132), Rus' was for the last time a united and cohesive state. The Polovtsy did not bother Kyiv, Pereyaslavl, or any other East Slavic cities. However, after the death of Mstislav Vladimirovich, disputes began between numerous Russian princes over the rights to the throne. Someone wanted to get Kyiv, someone fought for independence in other provinces. In wars among themselves, the Rurikovichs again began to hire Polovtsy.

For example, who ruled in Rostov, five times, together with the nomads, besieged the "mother of Russian cities." The Polovtsy were actively involved in internecine wars in the Galicia-Volyn principality. In 1203, under the command of Rurik Rostislavovich, they captured and plundered Kyiv. Then in ancient capital ruled by Prince Roman Mstislavovich Galitsky.

Trade Protection

In the XI-XII centuries. The Polovtsy did not always invade Rus' at the call of one of the princes. In periods when there were no other ways to rob and kill, nomads attacked Slavic settlements and cities without permission. Under the Kiev prince Mstislav Izyaslavovich (ruled in 1167-1169), for the first time in a long time, a campaign was organized and carried out in the steppe. The squads went to the places of nomads not only to secure the border settlements, but also to preserve the Dnieper trade. Merchants for many centuries used the Way from the Varangians to the Greeks, along which Byzantine goods were delivered. In addition, Russian merchants sold northern wealth in Constantinople, which brought great profits to the princes. Hordes of robbers were a constant threat to this important exchange of goods. Therefore, frequent Russian-Polovtsian wars were also caused by economic interests Kyiv rulers.

In 1185, Prince Novgorod-Seversky undertook another campaign in the steppe. The day before happened solar eclipse, which contemporaries regarded as a bad sign. Despite this, the squad nevertheless went to the lair of the Polovtsians. This army was defeated, and the prince was taken prisoner. The events of the campaign formed the basis of The Tale of Igor's Campaign. This text is today considered the most significant monument of ancient Russian literature.

The appearance of the Mongols

Relations between the Slavs and the Polovtsy for almost two centuries fit into a system of regular alternation of war and peace. However, in the XIII century, the established order collapsed. In 1222 in Eastern Europe Mongols first appeared. The hordes of these ferocious nomads had already conquered China and were now moving west.

The campaign of 1222-1223 was trial and actually was intelligence. However, even then, both the Polovtsy and the Russians felt their helplessness in the face of a new enemy. These two peoples had always been at war with each other before, but this time they decided to come together against an unexpected enemy. In the battle on Kalka, the Polovtsian-Russian army suffered a crushing defeat. Thousands of soldiers died. However, after the victory, the Mongols suddenly turned back and went to their native lands.

It seemed that the storm had passed. Everyone began to live as before: the princes fought with each other, the Polovtsians robbed the border settlements. A few years later, the unreasonable relaxation of the Polovtsians and Russians was punished. In 1236, the Mongols, under the leadership of Genghis Khan's grandson Batu, began their great western campaign. This time they went to distant countries in order to conquer them. First, the Polovtsians were defeated, then the Mongols plundered Rus'. The Horde reached the Balkans and only there turned back. New nomads settled in before. Gradually, the two peoples assimilated. However, as an independent force, the Polovtsy disappeared precisely in the 1230s-1240s. Now Rus' had to deal with a much more terrible enemy.

"The Tale of Igor's Campaign" is a story about the incredible courage of the Russian people, which tells about the unsuccessful campaign of Prince Igor against the Polovtsians. The action takes place not at the time of the heyday of Kievan Rus, but during the period of feudal disunity. The central character of the Lay is Prince Igor Svyatoslavovich of Novgorod-Seversky, a young and ambitious man. Igor is blinded by the opportunity to become famous, for which he gathers a campaign against the Polovtsy horde, involving his brother Vsevolod in this.

On the day of departure, nature gives a sign to the young prince, sending a warning sign in the form of a solar eclipse, which Prince Igor ignores - he and his army are determined. So, entering the Polovtsian territory, the prince manages to defeat the enemy detachment. As a result of a successful battle, the Russian army receives a lot of gold and jewelry as a reward. The prince is inspired by the victory and the result achieved, not noticing that he won only the first battle, but has not yet won the war.

Thus, in the first battle with the Polovtsians, the prince is driven by courage, and thirst will become famous, and the successful outcome of the battle pushes Prince Igor to a reckless continuation of the campaign. From which it entails even greater trouble, weakening the Old Russian state, demonstrating disunity and strife between the princes to the Polovtsy.

In the 12th century, the Polovtsy were considered the most dangerous enemies for the population of Ancient Rus'. They led a nomadic lifestyle and occupied the steppe territories in the valleys of the Don and Dnieper. Khan Konchak led the raids of the Polovtsians. In Rus', he was called "the godless, cursed destroyer."

For Russian princes, military campaigns were not only a way to expand their possessions, but also to raise their own authority.

In 1185 Prince Igor went on a campaign against the Polovtsy.

Prerequisites

Quite a lot of information about Prince Igor Svyatoslavovich in "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". This ancient source describes the weapons and the path of the squads, battle tactics.

First stage Prince Igor's campaign against the Polovtsy fell in the spring of 1185. By this time, the prince was 35. Previously, Igor had maintained rather friendly relations with Konchak. The Polovtsians were often involved in internecine wars for neighboring territories. In 1180, the prince, together with the Polovtsian khan, went to Kyiv. However, the campaign was unsuccessful.

Already 3 years later, an active struggle against the Polovtsians began. Quite often, Igor acted independently: he attacked enemies only with his squad, without turning to neighboring princes for help.

IN a story about a campaign against the Polovtsians Prince Igor characterized as a courageous and brave warrior. However, he was short-sighted and reckless. He aspired to glory and did not care much for his land.

One year before unsuccessful campaign of Prince Igor against the Polovtsy, the nomads were defeated by the joint army of Svyatoslav and neighboring princes. In Rus', it was considered that the nomads would no longer attack the country. However, everything turned out to be wrong.

The beginning of the path of the Russian rati

Except Prince Igor, on a campaign against the Polovtsy his brother, nephew and son participated. The first was Vsevolod Kursky, the second - Olgovich Rylsky, the third - Vladimir Putivlsky. Yaroslav (ruler of Chernigov) sent a detachment of Kuevs to Igor. These were semi-nomadic peoples living in the southern territories of the Chernigov land. At the head of this detachment was Olstin Oleksich.

Having reached the borders, the Russian soldiers saw a solar eclipse. This was considered a warning sign. However, they did not take it into account and continued to move. After a while, several warriors went in search of the "language". When he returned, he told about in large numbers nomads preparing for battle. It was necessary to make a decision: either quickly attack the enemy, or turn back. Igor could not go for the second option, otherwise it would have been a shame worse than death.

Short description

The bloody battle began in May 1185. According to sources, all tribal groups of nomads went to the battle. Several Russian princes, including Igor, were captured. A small group of Russian soldiers was able to break out of the encirclement of the Polovtsians. All the rest were killed.

Prince Igor managed to get out of captivity. However, his son remained with the Polovtsians. Vladimir was forced to marry the Khan's daughter. Subsequently, he nevertheless returned to his homeland.

Course of events

On the first day of the battle, Prince Igor managed to win. By lunchtime, the squad overtook the Polovtsians. The nomads abandoned their tents and moved to the other side of the river. Syuurliy.

IN Prince Igor's campaign against the Polovtsy 6 regiments participated. In the center were his warriors, on the right - Vsevolod, on the left - his nephew. These shelves were the main ones. Before them stood Igor's son with a detachment of Kuevs from Chernigov. Another regiment was prefabricated. It included archers from all other units.

Igor called the regiments to battle. The warriors were protected by chain mail and shields; Russian flags fluttered in the wind. Approaching the river, the soldiers saw the Polovtsian archers. The latter fired arrows at the Russians and began to run away.

Further down the river were the main Polovtsian regiments. They also took to flight. Vladimir and Svyatoslav with soldiers began to pursue the nomads. Igor and his brother walked slowly, not disbanding the detachments. A lot of booty was captured in the camp of nomads: gold, fabrics, clothes. Polovtsian girls were also captured.

At this time, the nomads pulled their ranks to the battlefield.

Environment

It started at dawn. The Polovtsy began to advance in great numbers from all sides. The princes decided to leave the encirclement. The warriors got down from their ends and began to fight with the nomads.

Vsevolod showed special courage on the battlefield. Prince Igor was wounded in the arm. The weather was hot, people and horses, who were in the ring of nomads, were cut off from the river. Everyone was thirsty.

The battle lasted all day. Many Russian soldiers were killed and wounded. The next day, the Kui began to flee from the battlefield. Igor tried to stop them, but could not. On the way back to the battlefield, he was taken prisoner.

The best combatants remained in the center of the battle and fought to the death. Captured, Igor watched his relatives die, saw the death of Vsevolod.

Consequences of defeat

Failed Igor's campaign against the Polovtsy was a real shock to the Russian people.

Having won, the nomads began the ruin of ancient Russian cities. The invasion was successful, including because of the tense internecine war. None of the princes wanted to help their neighbors. Everyone tried to separate themselves. Moreover, the attacks of the princes on each other were frequent. They sought to seize territories and expand their principality.

The nomads who won the battle began to move in spirit directions. First of all, they went to Pereyaslav. The second part went along the bank of the Seim. The defense in Pereyaslav was held by Vladimir Glebovich. The regiments of the Kyiv prince were sent to help him. The Polovtsy, in turn, deciding not to engage in a collision, turned back. On the way to their steppes, they burned the city of Rimov.

conclusions

The defeat of Igor in the battle with the Polovtsy clearly showed that the principality alone was unable to cope with the invasion of nomads on its own. The reason for the failure of the campaign is the lack of unity on Russian soil.

After the defeat from the Polovtsy, the borders of Rus' from the side of the steppe became open. This allowed the nomads to freely penetrate Russian soil, devastate cities, and take people into captivity. Moreover, the Polovtsy raided not only the border lands, but also went deep into the Old Russian state.

The internecine war of the Russian princes lasted a very long time. Principalities passed from one hand to another. The common people suffered the most from this. If the warriors received at least some income from the battles in the form of captured booty, then the people who worked on the land, after each raid or collision, were left without a harvest.

Conclusion

Many states wanted to seize Russian lands. However, nomads have always posed a particular danger to the population. They had strong and cruel rulers who managed to unite all the scattered tribes into one horde. Their unity was their strength. In addition, they were mobile, sat perfectly in the saddle, showed courage in battles, felt good in field conditions, often went to the trick.

The lack of unity of the Russian principalities led to very deplorable consequences. The state did not have time to recover from constant raids. As a result, over the principalities for a long time hung Tatar-Mongol yoke. And it was possible to get rid of him only after the unification of the princes and their squads and the beginning of civil strife in the Horde itself.

VI. DECLINE OF Kyiv PRINCIPAL

(continuation)

Revival of the fight against the barbarians. - Konchak. - Campaign, captivity and release of Igor Seversky. - Invasion of the Polovtsy. - Release of Igor. - Black Cowls. - The last deeds of Vsevolodich.

The agreement that settled between the Olgoviches and the Rostislavichs was not slow to be reflected in the external affairs of Southern Rus', i.e. on its relations with the steppe barbarians; the fight against them was revived with new energy. Having strengthened himself on the Kiev table, Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich no longer had the need to caress his former allies, and we see a number of successful campaigns that the South Russian princes undertake with common forces, with Svyatoslav and Rurik at the head. They smash the Polovtsian hordes, free numerous Russian captives from slavery, and capture the Polovtsian khans themselves, including Kobyak Karlyevich with his two sons, Bashkord, Osaluk, and others. in large hordes.

The most glorious of the Polovtsian khans of that time was Konchak. The Russian chronicle has preserved a curious legend about its origin. When Vladimir Monomakh smashed the Polovtsy in the Zadonsk steppes, one of their khans, Otrok, fled to Obez behind the Iron Gates, i.e. to the Caucasus; and the other khan, apparently his brother Syrchan, remained on the Don. When Vladimir died, Syrchan sent the gudets Orev with this news to Obez; I ordered to sing Polovtsian songs to my brother, to persuade him to return to his homeland, and if he does not listen, then give him a sniff of some kind of potion or herb called emshan. The dude did just that. Having sniffed the potions, the exile wept and said: "Yes, it is better to lay bones in your own land than to be glorious in someone else's land." He came to his homeland, and Konchak was born from him, "who also carried Sula, walking on foot, carrying a cauldron on his shoulder." This same Konchak, "cursed, godless and cursed," as the chronicle calls him, came to Rus' with the Polovtsian horde in 1184. He threatened to set fire to and capture the Russian cities, for he had with him some kind of "besermenin" who shot with live fire; in addition, according to the chronicle, he had projectiles and self-shooting bows, so huge and tight that 50 people could hardly pull such a bow. Konchak settled on the Ukraine and started peace negotiations with Yaroslav Vsevolodich; it was the younger brother of Svyatoslav, who gave him his Chernigov table. The Grand Duke sent to tell his brother that he did not believe the treacherous Polovtsy and together with him would go to war against them. However, Yaroslav evaded the campaign under the pretext of his peace negotiations with Konchak. Svyatoslav united with Rurik and hastened against the barbarians. The senior princes with the main forces went behind, and ahead of themselves ("to the vorop", as it was then expressed) several junior princes detached. The latter met guests on the road, or merchants who had traveled through the steppes, and learned from them that the Polovtsy were standing on the Khorol River, near the rampart ("sholomya") that protected the Russian land from the side of the steppes. junior princes suddenly came out from behind this rampart, hit the Polovtsy and captured many prisoners; among them, they brought to Svyatoslav that Besermenin who shot with live fire. When the senior princes approached, Konchak fled to the steppes. This happened on March 1, 1185, i.e. at the very New Year, since the Russians considered it the beginning of March. In pursuit of the Polovtsy, the Grand Duke dispatched 6,000 Black Hoods, or Berendeys, with their leader Kuntuvdy; but on the occasion of the impending thaw, the pursuit could not overtake the Polovtsy.

In this campaign, except for Yaroslav of Chernigov, the princes of Seversky did not take part either; the latter did not have time to connect with the Grand Duke because of the speed with which his campaign was completed. At that time, his cousin Igor Svyatoslavich stood in the brow of the Seversky princes, who had already distinguished himself more than once in battles with the Polovtsy and, as recently as 1183, undertook a successful search in the steppe together with his brother Vsevolod, son Vladimir and nephew Svyatoslav. He planned to repeat the same thing now, after Konchak's defeat at Khorol, where, to his great regret, he did not manage to make it in time. Without asking the head of a kind of Svyatoslav of Kyiv, he decided to immediately go to the steppes with some Seversk squads and at the end of April set out from his capital city. In Putivl, his son Vladimir, who reigned in that city, united with him; nephew Svyatoslav Olgovich from Rylsk also came here. His cousin Yaroslav Chernigovsky sent his boyar Olstin Oleksich to help him with a detachment of kouys; they were semi-nomadic peoples settled on the southern borders of the Chernihiv land, tribesmen of the Black Klobuks. A modern poet depicts Igor's preparations for the campaign with the following words: "Comoni neigh for Sula; glory rings in Kiev, trumpets blow in Novegrad; banners stand in Putivl; Igor is waiting for dear brother Vsevolod." But the latter set off by a different route, from Kursk. Igor moved to the Donets, crossed it, reached the banks of the Oskol and here he waited for his brother, the daring Vsevolod Trubchevsky. This campaign of four princes, of which the eldest was no more than 35 years old, made a strong impression on his contemporaries, so that in addition to a fairly detailed account of the annals, he became the subject of a wonderful poetic work of Ancient Rus', known as "The Tale of Igor's Campaign".

Map of Prince Igor's campaign against the Polovtsians (1185)

Image by Vladimir Lobachev

At the very beginning of the campaign, bad omens appear that predict a sad outcome for him. Once, when the army was approaching the Donets, in the evening the sun turned into some kind of haze, so that it looked more like a month, and this circumstance confused the squad. But Igor tries to encourage her. Now Rus' is behind Shelomyan, i.e. crossed the Polovtsian rampart and deepened into the steppe. Warriors sent ahead to "catch the tongue", i.e. on reconnaissance, they returned and reported that the barbarians were gathering in large numbers and preparing for battle. "Hurry to attack them," the scouts told the princes, "or return home, because the time is unfavorable for us." But Igor replied that returning home without a battle would be rubbish worse than death. Meanwhile, according to the poet, the carnivores sense their close prey: flocks of jackdaws fly to the Great Don, wolves howl along the ravines, eagles call the animals to the bones with their scream, foxes rattle on scarlet Russian shields.

The Polovtsy gathered, young and old, on the banks of some river, the Syuurlei; but bring your own, i.e. wagons with wives, children and flocks were sent further back. Igor built the Russian army in the usual order of battle. It consisted of six regiments. Igor's regiment marched in the middle, on the right side - his brother Vsevolod, on the left - his nephew Svyatoslav; it was the main army; in front of her were Vladimir Igorevich with his retinue and the Chernigov regiment, i.e. boyar Olstin with kouyami. The sixth detachment was prefabricated: it was made up of riflemen sent in advance from all five regiments. Rus' advanced briskly, covered with iron chain mail, motley with red shields, under the shadow of its banners fluttering in the wind. The front detachments rushed at the enemy; and Igor and Vsevolod quietly followed them, "without disbanding their regiment." The Polovtsians could not withstand the onslaught of some front squads and ran. Rus' chased the barbarians, reached their vezhes and captured a large crowd: girls, gold and silk fabrics; and so many Polovtsian jackets, epanches and other clothes were captured that, according to the poet, at least bridges over swamps and muddy places. When the winners encamped among the Polovtsian towers, Igor began to say to the princes and boyars: isn't this victory enough and turn back before the rest of the hordes gather? But Svyatoslav Olgovich announced that he and his retinue were chasing the Polovtsy far and that his tired horses would not keep up with the other regiments. Vsevolod supported his nephew, and it was decided not to rush to return. The young princes rejoiced at their victory and frivolously boasted: "Our brothers, who walked with the Grand Duke Svyatoslav, fought with the Polovtsy looking at Pereyaslavl; they themselves came; and the princes did not dare to go to them. We have already beaten the filthy in their own land; now let's go over the Don, to destroy them completely; let's go to Lukomorye, where our grandfathers did not go either. Encouraged by the success of the Seversk princes, it seems that they had the hope of recapturing their hereditary Tmutarakan inheritance.

“A good nest is dormant in the field of Olga, it has flown far away,” says the poet. And meanwhile, the Polovtsian hordes are hurrying from everywhere to the scene of action; two strongest khans came, Gzak and Konchak. At dawn, Rus' was amazed to see countless hordes of barbarians who surrounded her like a thick forest. The princes decided to make their way to the fatherland; but in order not to leave the foot warriors ("black people") to sacrifice to the enemies, the valiant Olgovichi ordered their squad to dismount from their horses and slowly began to retreat, desperately fighting with the barbarians pushing from all sides. Vsevolod was especially rich, whom the poet calls now Bui-tour, then Yar-tour. Where he turns, shining his golden helmet, there lie the filthy Polovtsian heads; their Avar helmets are smashed with Russian steel swords and red-hot sabers. It happened on the banks of the Kayala on hot May days; Russian squads were cut off from the water; people and horses were exhausted from thirst. On the third day of the battle, Sunday, the Cowie could not stand it and fled. Igor, already wounded in the arm, galloped after them, trying to stop them, and took off his helmet to show them his face; but in vain; he failed to win back the Kouys. Here, on the way back to his regiment, he was intercepted by the Polovtsy and taken prisoner. Vsevolod, who finally made his way to the water, broke all his weapons against the enemies and was also captured by them. Then the battle ended; the princes with the rest of the squad were dismantled by the Polovtsy and divorced according to their towers. Igor went to Khan Chilbuk from the Targolov family, Vsevolod - to Roman, the son of Gzagk, Svyatoslav fell into the Burchevich family, and Vladimir - Ulashevich. Defeat and captivity humbled Igor's pride; he accepted them as God's punishment for his past sins, for much shedding of Christian blood in civil strife with the Russian princes. With a contrite heart, he remembered one Russian city, which was taken on a shield and subjected to all possible rages from military people.

After the battle of Igor Svyatoslavich with the Polovtsians. Painting by V. Vasnetsov, 1880

"The Tale of Igor's Campaign" touchingly portrays the sadness and despondency that spilled over the Russian land at the news of the fate of the Svyatoslavichs. In particular, it poetically draws the weeping of Igor's wife in Putivl on a visor, or on the city wall; with a complaint about her grief, she turns to the wind, the sun and the Dnieper. His wife was Evfrosinya Yaroslavna, daughter of the Galician prince. The unfortunate end of the campaign gives the poet an opportunity to point out main reason the triumphs of the barbarians - to the strife and strife of the Russian princes; he remembers better times, about Vladimir Monomakh, who was a thunderstorm of the Polovtsians; speaks of the last successful campaigns of Svyatoslav of Kyiv.

Knowing nothing about the enterprise of the Seversky princes, Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich from Kyiv went to his hereditary region, to the land of the Vyatichi, to collect warriors and supplies there; for he had the intention, together with the Rostislavichs, to go to the Don for the whole summer and fight the Polovtsy. On the way back, near Novgorod-Seversky, the Grand Duke learned with displeasure that the cousins, without asking his consent, had, as it were, secretly embarked on a campaign in the steppes. From Novgorod-Seversky, he sailed on boats along the Desna to Chernigov, and then the news of the defeat and captivity of his relatives reached him. The land of Seversk, especially the Family, was in great turmoil; she lost her princes and troops; in a rare family, they did not mourn the loss of one of their closest ones. Svyatoslav immediately took action. He sent his sons to the northern border towns to protect the region from the barbarians; at the same time sent to David Smolensky and other princes, reminding them of their promise to go to the Polovtsians in the summer and inviting them to hasten the campaign. "Go, brother, guard the Russian land," he ordered to tell David. The latter really came with his Smolensk people and, together with other princes, stood at Trepol; and the brother of the Kyiv prince Yaroslav gathered his army in Chernigov. These preparations were very timely, for the Polovtsians, proud of their victory and the captivity of four Russian princes, themselves moved in large numbers to the Russian land. Fortunately, there was a feud between the khans. Konchak said: "Let's go to the Kyiv side; our brothers were beaten there and our glorious Bonyak died." And Gzak called the Polovtsy to Seven, saying: "There are only wives and children left, ready for us full; let's take the city without fear." The barbarians were divided into two parts. Some followed Gzak to Putivl, fought the surrounding volost, burned the villages, burned the prison, or external fortification, Putivl, but they did not take the city itself and went back to the steppes. And others with Konchak went to Pereyaslavl and laid siege to it. But the courageous Vladimir Glebovich, the grandson of Yuri Dolgoruky, reigned here; he made a desperate sortie, was seriously wounded and barely saved by his squad from captivity. In vain did Vladimir's messengers call for help from the princes who were standing at Trepol. Svyatoslav also hurried the Rostislavichs. The Smolensk army started a feud with their prince and began to create noisy vechas; she announced that she had gone only as far as Kyiv and that she was now exhausted in the campaign. David was forced to turn back. The singer of The Tale of Igor's Campaign hints at this strife, saying: “The banners of Vladimir (Monomakh) went to Rurik and David; but their banners fly in different directions. Finally, Rurik and others, uniting with the Grand Duke, crossed to the left bank of the Dnieper and went to Pereyaslavl. Then the Polovtsy left the siege of this city; they rushed to Sula, ruined the volosts lying along it and laid siege to Rome (Romny). The steppe barbarians, indomitable in plundering and ruining open settlements, were not skillful in the siege of cities; but this time an accident helped them get hold of Rimov. When the besieged crowded on the visor, under their weight, two gorodni broke off from it and fell with people right on the side of the besiegers. Then the barbarians broke into the city and captured all who survived the sword; only those who fled to nearby swampy places and wilds were saved. After that, Konchak went to his steppes. Probably, the words of the chronicler cited above hint at this invasion of his: "I already demolished Sulu."

Igor Svyatoslavich lived in captivity in anticipation of a ransom or exchange. The Polovtsy treated him well, respecting his nobility and courage, and especially thanks to the guarantee of Konchak, who considered him a matchmaker, because he read his daughter for his son. 20 watchmen were assigned to Igor; but the latter did not constrain the prince and even obeyed his orders; with him were five or six more of his own servants and the son of his thousandth. He was even allowed to go out at will and amuse himself with falconry. A priest was also called from Rus' to perform St. service: Igor thought that he would have to be in captivity for a long time. The horde, in which he was, roamed this summer on the banks of the Tor, one of the left tributaries of the Donets. Between the Polovtsy there was a certain Ovlur, who became attached to the prince and offered to flee with him to Rus'. The prince hesitated at first. But the son of the thousandth prince and the equestrian prince persuaded him to take advantage of the offer; they informed Igor that the Polovtsians were threatening to beat the captured princes and their entire squad. Then Igor made up his mind and sent a groom to tell Ovlur to wait for him with a leash horse on the other side of the Tor. The time for the escape was chosen in the evening. The Polovtsian guards, having drunk their koumiss, began to play and have fun, thinking that the prince was sleeping. But he did not sleep: having prayed earnestly in front of the icon, Igor raised the back cavity of the tent and went out unnoticed by anyone. He crossed the river, mounted his horse and, accompanied by Ovlur, galloped back to his homeland. When the horses were driven, they had to make their way through the steppe on foot, taking every precaution to hide from the chase. Eleven days later, the fugitives reached the Russian border town of Donets, from where Igor triumphantly went to his Novgorod-Seversky. He did not hesitate to visit the head of his family, the Grand Duke of Kyiv, and bow to the Kyiv shrines in gratitude for his liberation. "The sun is shining in heaven," exclaims the singer of the Lay, "Igor is a prince in the Russian land; girls sing on the Danube, voices rush across the sea to Kiev; Igor travels along Borichev to the Holy Mother of God Pirogoshcha; there is joy in the country, fun among the people." Two years later, Igor's son Vladimir also returned from captivity, accompanied by Konchak's daughter, with whom he married. Vsevolod Trubchevsky and Svyatoslav Rylsky also received their freedom.

After that, the struggle against the steppe barbarians became even more lively and stubborn. We see almost annual campaigns against the Polovtsy: either the old princes Svyatoslav and Rurik fight the nomads with united forces, or they send young princes or Cherny Klobuks with their governors against them. Rus' ruins the Polovtsian towers; but the barbarians, in their turn, seizing a convenient time, run into the Russian ukrainians, burn the villages and take away many captives. However, with all the revival, the fight against them no longer has the same strength and energy as in the days of Monomakh or his son Mstislav. The whole history of Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich shows that he was an intelligent and active prince. Thanks to the peace and agreement established for a while with the head of the Rostislavichs, Rurik, he sometimes succeeds in uniting the squads of the South Russian princes for a common cause; but he no longer had any influence on the rest of the Russian lands. He could not always inspire unanimity in the southern princes themselves. His own brother Yaroslav Chernigovsky somehow reluctantly and sluggishly helped him in his enterprises against the Polovtsy. So, it was his fault that the big one didn't work out. winter hike 1187. For deep snows, the Russian army did not go straight to the steppe, but along the Dnieper; when she reached the river Snoporoda (Samara), the princes learned that the Polovtsian towers and herds were not far away, in some area called the Blue Forest. But Yaroslav Chernigovsky suddenly refused to go further; In vain Svyatoslav and Rurik persuaded him to make another crossing in no more than half a day. Yaroslav stood his ground, responding that most of his rati are infantry, which is very tired; that they have gone further than expected. As a result of this strife, the princes returned home with nothing.

The Black Hoods, necessary assistants in the steppe campaigns as a cavalry army, did not always act with the same zeal in favor of Rus'. It happened that sometimes the Russian princes rush to repel the raids of some predatory horde; and the Black Hoods will secretly notify "their matchmakers" of the Polovtsy, and they will leave in time for the steppes with the loot and the full. Sometimes the Black Hoods simply refused to go to the Polovtsian clans closest to them, with whom they were in friendly and family relations; or, having captured the Polovtsian khan, secretly from the Russian princes they took a ransom from him and let him go home. Especially much evil was caused to the Russian land by one of their foremen, Kuntuvdy mentioned above. In the summer of 1190, Svyatoslav and Rurik, taking advantage of a temporary lull, undertook long-range fishing together; on boats they set off along the Dnieper, reached the mouth of the Tyasmina River and killed him in the vicinity and caught many animals and various game. They returned home merrily and celebrated a successful hunt for a long time. At this time, Svyatoslav ordered to seize and imprison Kuntuvdy; Rurik stood up for him and begged for his freedom; The Kiev prince released him, taking an oath of allegiance. But the vengeful Torchin immediately went to the Polovtsy and then for several years went with them to Rus', burned and plundered the border places. By the way, he ruined the city of some Churnaya, probably one of the Tork foremen, perhaps his rival and the culprit of his disgrace. Revenge and his raids stopped only thanks to Rurik, who persuaded Kuntuvdy to lag behind the Polovtsians and gave him the possession of the town of Dveren on the Ros River.

However, the Black Hoods rendered a lot of services in our fight against the Polovtsians. Sometimes these semi-nomadic peoples, as greedy for booty as the steppe barbarians, themselves asked the princes to go with them to the Polovtsian towers in order to capture as many horses, cattle and servants as possible. They mainly took advantage of the time when the Polovtsy, leaving their lodges and herds, raided the Danubian countries. Particularly successful were the enterprises of the Black Hoods under the command of Ryurik's son Rostislav, to whom his father gave Torchesk, main city Porose, or southern Kyiv Ukraine; and here the most daring princes were usually imprisoned in order to protect the Russian land from the barbarians. The most remarkable campaign was made by him in 1193. In the winter of this year, he was fishing near the city of Chernobyl, when the best people from the Black Hoods and asked to go with them to the steppe, since the circumstances were very favorable. Rostislav readily agreed and went immediately to Torchesk to gather his squad. He did not even consider it necessary to ask permission from his father Rurik; the latter was then in Ovruch and was preparing for a campaign against Lithuania. Rostislav invited to go along with his cousin Mstislav Mstislavich (Udaly), who held the city of Trepol. Mstislav readily agreed. With their retinues and the Black Hoods, they flew by surprise on the Polovtsian towers and drove off a lot of cattle, horses and servants: the Black Hoods, obviously, chose the most convenient time for this raid. The Polovtsy gathered and went in pursuit, but did not dare to engage in open battle. By Christmas, Rostislav returned to his Torchesk, and from there he went to his older relatives with "saigas", i.e. with gifts from his booty: first to Father Rurik in Ovruch, then to Uncle David in Smolensk, and from there to Vladimir on the Klyazma, to his father-in-law Vsevolod Yurievich.

Around that time, the unrest caused by the murder of Bogolyubsky had already ceased in the Suzdal land; The Vladimir table was occupied by his younger brother Vsevolod III, and under his clever, firm control, Northern Rus' again gained predominance over Southern; so that the southern princes and Kiev himself were forced to recognize the seniority of Vsevolod. Thus, in Rus' there were already two great reigns: one in Kyiv, the other in Vladimir Klyazminsky. The southern princes were in a hurry to intermarry with the powerful sovereign. Suzdal. By the way, Rurik betrothed his daughter Verkhuslav to his son Rostislav in 1187. Verkhuslava was only eight years old; but such a circumstance did not prevent a marriage union in accordance with the customs of that time. Vsevolod sent his daughter south with a large retinue of boyars and their wives, providing him with a rich dowry consisting of gold and silver items. Her father and mother saw her off three journeys and said goodbye with great tears. The wedding of the young couple took place in Belgorod and was performed by the Bishop of Belgorod Maxim in the "wooden" church of St. Apostle. The wedding was celebrated with glory; it was attended by up to twenty princes. Rurik generously endowed his young daughter-in-law and, by the way, gave her the city of Bryagin; and the boyars who accompanied her were released to Suzdal also with large gifts. Judging by the chronicle, this wedding generally made an impression on contemporaries and was the subject of many conversations. When Rostislav, after the aforementioned campaign against the Polovtsy, together with his wife, visited his father-in-law, Vsevolod, who dearly loved Verkhuslav, kept his son-in-law and daughter for the whole winter, after which he saw them off with great honor and rich gifts.

Meanwhile, Rostislav's raid on the steppe changed his father's orders. Svyatoslav of Kiev sent Rurik to say: "Your son touched the Polovtsy and began to fight with him, you want to go the other way, leaving your land; no, now go to Rus' and guard it." Let's not forget that Rus in those days was mainly called the land of Kiev. Rurik listened and with his regiments went to the southern Ukraine, postponing his campaign against Lithuania, which was already noticeably beginning to crowd our western borders. Not later than in the summer of the same 1193, i.e. even before the Rostislav campaign, the aged Svyatoslav tried to conclude a lasting peace with the Polovtsian khans in order to take a break from continuous worries. He and Rurik gathered in Kanev and sent to call the khans for peace talks. The Western, or "Lukomor" khans, Itogloi and Akush, really arrived; but the eastern ones, Osoluk and Izay, from the Burchevich family, settled on the other bank of the Dnieper opposite Kanev and refused to cross the river, inviting the princes themselves to cross over to their side. The princes answered that neither under their grandfathers nor under their fathers there was such a custom that they themselves would go to the Polovtsy. Although the Lukomorskys willingly agreed to peace and Rurik advised taking advantage of this, but since the Burcheviches persisted, Svyatoslav said: "I can't put up with one half." And the congress ended in nothing.

This was the last act of Svyatoslav in relation to the steppe barbarians. There is no doubt that, in addition to the defense of the Chernigov and Kyiv limits, Svyatoslav and the whole family of the Olgovichs had another motivation that moved them to a stubborn struggle with the steppe. Behind this steppe, on the shores of the Azov and Black Seas, lay their ancestral inheritance Tmutarakansky, once a rich and trading region due to its proximity to the Greek cities in Taurida and the Caucasus region. The Polovtsian hordes gradually wrested this region from Dnieper Rus and blocked the way to it for its hereditary princes. It was to this Tmutarakan Rus that the grandchildren of Oleg Svyatoslavich tried to break through, which is also hinted at by the singer of The Tale of Igor's Campaign. But all attempts ended not in favor of the Russian princes; already had to think only about the protection of neighboring Ukrainians. And the newly ensuing princely civil strife again gave the Polovtsy the opportunity not only to ruin these Ukrainians with impunity, but also to rob the very capital of Ancient Rus'.

Chronicle according to Ipat. list. What kind of living fire is spoken of here is unknown. It is reliable, however, that in this era in the East, it was among the Saracens and the Turks that there was some kind of flame-throwing projectile, which they used in wars with the crusaders. Maybe it was something similar to the Greek or so-called. Median fire.

The most detailed story about the campaign, captivity and release of Igor Svyatoslavich is in the Ipatiev list. When describing the event, we borrowed some features from a poem by an unknown Russian singer of the late 12th century, depicting the fate of the same campaign under the title The Word about Igor's Campaign. "Regiment" was then used in the meaning of the army, as well as battles, wars, rati. This wonderful poetic work of Ancient Rus' was found at the end of the 18th century by the collector of domestic rarities Count Musin-Pushkin in one old collection and was first published in 1800. Its original burned down in the Moscow fire in 1812. This "Lay" gave rise to an extensive literature, consisting of its numerous editions, interpretations and transcriptions, both prose and poetry. These are the publications: Palipin 1807, Pozharsky 1819, Gramatin 1823, Sakharov 1839, Golovin 1840 and others. A word about P. Igor" - for students. M. 1866) and book. Vyazemsky ("Remarks on the Word about P. Igor". St. Petersburg, 1875). Also curious are several explanations of the "Lay" by Shevyrev in the History of Russian. literature (T. I. Part 2. M. 1846) and Buslaev - "Russian poetry of the XI and the beginning of the XII century" (Chronicles of Russian Literature - edition of Prof. Tikhonravov. T. I.M. 1859), especially the explanations of E.V . Barsova (several volumes). Of the poetic arrangements, I will point to Maykov's work (in the 3rd part of the collection of his poems).

Regarding the river Kayala, on the banks of which the battle took place, according to the "Word about P. Igor" and according to the Ipatiev list, it is currently difficult to determine which river it is. Karamzin considered it Kagalnik, which flows into the Don on the right side, higher than the Donets. But this is still a wild guess. Under certain circumstances, one might think that main battle took place somewhere closer to the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov, or to the Lukomorye, as the Seversky princes call it in the annals. Some scientists identified Kayala with Kalmius flowing into the Sea of ​​Azov (Butkov, Aristov), ​​others with Thor. (Proceedings of the 3rd Archeologist. Congress).