Protection from predators.

Limited food resources. A large concentration of food resources is needed to maintain the life of a large group.

Benefits and disadvantages of social behavior.

Disadvantages:

2. Influence on reproduction. Species living in large groups usually have fewer offspring per animal than those in small groups.

3. sexual selection. If sexual selection favors the formation of large aggressive males, their inclusion in organized communities is less likely.

4. danger of inbreeding.

5. Susceptibility to disease and predation. Close aggregations favor the spread of disease and increase the risk of being detected by predators.

Benefits:

2. Increasing competitiveness. It is easier not only to resist predators, but also to push back other species of animals.

3. Buffering in relation to environmental factors. Household cooperation.

4. Penetration into new ecological niches.

5. Increasing the efficiency of reproduction. Easier to find partners and synchronize breeding.

6. Increasing the survival rate of pups. It is easier to ensure survival.

7. Greater population stability. Increases individual fitness, tk. population size is stable.

8. Increased nutritional efficiency through training and cooperation.

9. Change environment. (creation of buildings, temperature regulation, influence on the nature of vegetation).

If animals live in groups (communities) with a distribution of functions, they need a communication system.

Communicative behavior is carried out with the help of a wide variety of signals.

1. Olfactory communication. Signaling with smells. This type of communication is specific only to animals. It manifests itself in the marking of the territory. ( American squirrels live separately. They mark their sites by scraping off pieces of bark with their teeth and mixing them with their own urine.). It is interesting that practically related species can mark the territory in different ways. ( Gazelle Thompson and Grant. "Tommies" mark the branches of plants, releasing odorous substances from the preocular glands. Mark every 4m. Grant's gazelles are marked in the usual way - with excrement.) A special kind - chemical communication that exists in insects. These substances called pheromones. They play an important role both at the meeting of the male and the female, and at other stages of mating behavior, as well as1 when searching for food.

2. visual communication. In this case, the elements of communication are the elements appearance. (coloring, body movements). An example is the mating behavior of birds. Motor signaling in animals can serve as an expression of a certain emotional state. So in dogs, clearly demarcated postures can be distinguished. Very interesting signaling discovered elephants. There are three components in their facial expressions: the position of the trunk, tail and ears. N. Tinbergen established 19 different meanings of elephant facial expressions. For example, the ears pushed forward are excitement, while the head is raised, the principle of hostility, and the tail raised is aggressiveness. The trunk bent outward is a sign of rage, and inward - fear. When establishing contact in animals, one can observe very complex rituals of changing states. Observations show that visual communication can not only carry information about the emotional state of the animal, but also about the external environment and perform a pointing function. The famous "dance of the bees", called by K. von Frisch "language of bees" - an example of this kind. Upon returning from the food source, the bee performs a dance on the vertical surface of the honeycomb. It looks like a figure eight. The rest of the bees follow the dancer's movements to determine the distance to the food and the direction. The distance is determined by the speed of the dance, moreover, than less number dances per unit of time - the farther the source of food. The direction is given in relation to the position of the Sun. Moving up - food in the direction of the Sun, down - moving away from it. Orientation to the right or to the left - respectively. By the smell emanating from the scout, the bees recognize the nature of the food. If the food does not smell, then the bee marks it with its own smell.

Complex language exists in ants. Professor Marikovsky deciphered 14 out of 20 signals. “Attention!”, “Attention! Be alert”, “Who is he?”, “Leave me alone!” and so on.

3. Sound communication. Methods of sound communication are widespread in animals. In particular, in some birds ( magpies) detected up to 20 signals. In monkeys, sound communication is quite complex. Up to 40 signals were found, which indicate not only emotional states, but also the nature of the threat. Analyzing the sound communication of monkeys, N.A. Tych noted its significant difference from other animals:

Sound communication serves as a means of inducing animals to perform some action: follow me, take an object, etc. Although this feature is also characteristic of other animals.

· Orientation, addressing of sounds. For example, akhanye is an expression of fear and is not directed at an object. But already the clatter, accompanied by touching the object, is strictly addressed and is produced by each monkey, depending on the completeness of the situation, position in the herd and relationships with each of its members.

The ability to act dually, when two actions are performed simultaneously. ( The weak monkey starts a fight with the stronger ones. They respond with screams and threats. The leader rushes into the thick of things to eliminate the conflict. And at this time, the "instigator", grabbing a piece, runs away). Ya. Roginsky called this phenomenon "psychic mimicry". It is important in the development of means of communication, because. it manifests the separation of actual experience (emotions of fear, hunger) from external expression. This marks the transition from expressive means to pictorial ones.

Since ancient times, mankind has dreamed of learning to understand the language of animals and talk with them. These aspirations of people are reflected in numerous legends and fairy tales. IN real life people have noticed that animals not only understand the words of people, but can also imitate their speech. These unique abilities were especially found in parrots and some other birds (crows, magpies, starlings). However, research by scientists and observations by nature lovers have proven that birds pronounce these words without assessing the specific situation. And although in the literature you can find descriptions of cases when birds were not limited to simply memorizing words, this could be a mere coincidence.

Research shows that animal language has a number of characteristic features used in human language. For example, such features of the human language as its symbolism and openness to new information are also inherent in the well-known honey bee dance which is a kind of communicative behavior. The ability of animals to use language gave rise to the assumption of the possibility of teaching the highest representatives of this kingdom of human speech, however, attempts made since the beginning of the 30s to teach higher monkeys have not been successful (the Kelloggs, K. and K. Hayes). So, chimpanzee Vicki in the experiments of the Hayes spouses, over many years of training, was able to utter only a few words. Further research has shown that chimpanzees do not have a vocal apparatus capable of reproducing human speech. Looking through the recordings of experiments with Wiki, American psychologists R. and B. Gardner came to the conclusion that it is possible to communicate with chimpanzees in another way, namely sign language (Gardner, 1969). Their experiments with Washoe the chimpanzee, followed by studies by other scientists who use other methods to teach the language: a system of chips (D. Primak, 1970), computer keys (D. Rumbo, 1977) showed not only the ability to communicate with animals, but also discovered their new abilities. First of all, monkeys were found to be able to create new concepts. So Washoe coined the word "sweet drink" for watermelon, and called the swan "water bird". It has also been established that chimpanzees were capable of syntaxing, i.e. composing simple phrases and operating with them. Thus, the chimpanzee Lucy could use the combination of the words "I tickle you" and differentiate this phrase from a similar one, such as "You tickle me".

In addition, the monkeys were able not only to assimilate the meaning of the sign, but also transfer its meanings. So the gesture "dog" denoted the animal itself, its drawing, and was also used as a curse.

The studies carried out, called "language projects" caused not only a furore in scientific world, but also generated skepticism. These latter came mainly from psycholinguists and linguists who believed that human language ability is determined genetically and is formed gradually in accordance with the genetic program. But in addition to unconstructive skepticism, more reasonable criticism appeared. It began with the research of Herbert Terrace, one of the ardent supporters of the "language projects". He found that the monkeys repeat in most cases those signs that occur in the trainer's phrase. This meant that the animal does not communicate with a person, but "monkeys", i.e. imitate his actions. They are able to use spontaneous hints that the experimenter allows or simply learn tricks, like animals in a circus. The creation of new concepts by the monkey is also quite difficult to interpret. On the one hand, this may not be the creation of a new word, but the result of a simple generalization. On the other hand, as G. Terras rightly noted, “the trouble is that the meaning of what he saw is understood by a person, and he attributes this to a monkey.” The monkey gestures "water" and "bird", and the observer wants to see the creation of the concept of "water bird".

Thus, it can be said that there is no giant gap between animal and human language, and similarities can be found between sign behavior. Chimpanzees are able to use signs with the transfer of knowledge, create new ones, and syntact sign constructions. However, animal language also has certain limitations. The sign system, which the experimental monkeys learned, corresponds to the initial stage of language development in ontogenesis and phylogenesis, which is called the language of "word-sentences". Studies of the language of primitive peoples show that the unit of the language is a kind of "word-sentence" containing indications of actions and objects. This branch of language development is a dead end and cannot develop into a human language with its complex internal connections due to the rigid “texture” of the signs themselves.

Comparative studies of language formation in monkeys and children show that chimpanzees and other great apes, in their attempts to learn human language, can only reach the level of a small child.

At the same time, the experiments presented here revealed to us their abilities that we had not previously suspected, which significantly brings us closer to understanding their cognitive capabilities.

For a normal life, each individual needs accurate information about everything that surrounds it. This information is obtained through systems and means of communication. Animals receive communication signals and other information about the outside world through their physical and chemical senses.

In most taxonomic groups of animals, all the sense organs are present and functioning simultaneously, depending on their anatomical structure and lifestyle, the functional roles of the systems differ. Sensory systems complement each other well and provide a living organism with complete information about the factors external environment. At the same time, in the event of a complete or partial failure of one or even several of them, the remaining systems strengthen and expand their functions, thereby compensating for the lack of information. For example, blind and deaf animals are able to navigate in the environment with the help of smell and touch. It is well known that deaf-mutes easily learn to understand the interlocutor's speech by the movement of his lips, and the blind learn to read with their fingers.

Depending on the degree of development in animals of certain sense organs, communication can be used different ways communications. Thus, the interactions of many invertebrates, as well as some vertebrates that lack eyes, are dominated by tactile communication. Many invertebrates have specialized tactile organs, such as insect antennae, often equipped with chemoreceptors. Because of this, their sense of touch is closely related to chemical sensitivity. Because of physical properties the aquatic environment, its inhabitants communicate with each other mainly through visual and sound signals. The communication systems of insects are quite diverse, especially their chemical communication. Most great importance they have for social insects whose social organization can rival that of human society.

Fish use at least three types of communication signals: auditory, visual, and chemical, often in combination.

Although amphibians and reptiles have all the sensory organs characteristic of vertebrates, their forms of communication are relatively simple.

Bird communications reach a high level of development, with the exception of chemocommunication, which is available literally in single species. Communicating with individuals of their own, as well as other species, including mammals and even humans, birds use mainly sound as well as visual signals. Thanks to good development hearing and vocal apparatus, birds have excellent hearing and are able to make many different sounds. Flocking birds use more varied auditory and visual cues than solitary birds. They have signals that gather a flock, announcing danger, signals "everything is calm" and even calls for a meal. In the communication of terrestrial mammals, a lot of space is occupied by information about emotional states - fear, anger, pleasure, hunger and pain.

However, this is far from exhausting the content of communications - even in animals that are not related to primates.

Animals wandering in groups, through visual signals, maintain the integrity of the group and warn each other of danger; bears, within their territory, peel off the bark on tree trunks or rub against them, thus informing about the size of their body and gender; skunks and a number of other animals secrete odorous substances for protection or as sexual attractants; male deer arrange ritual tournaments to attract females during the rut; wolves express their attitude with an aggressive growl or friendly tail wagging; seals on rookeries communicate with the help of calls and special movements; angry bear coughs menacingly.

Mammalian communication signals have been developed for communication between individuals of the same species, but often these signals are perceived by individuals of other species that are nearby. In Africa, the same spring is sometimes used for watering at the same time by different animals, for example, wildebeest, zebra and waterbuck. If a zebra, with its acute hearing and sense of smell, senses the approach of a lion or other predator, its actions inform the neighbors in the watering place about this, and they react accordingly. In this case, interspecies communication takes place.

Man uses the voice to communicate to an immeasurably greater extent than any other primate. For greater expressiveness, words are accompanied by gestures and facial expressions. The rest of the primates use signal postures and movements in communication much more often than we do, and the voice much less often. These components of primate communication behavior are not innate - animals learn different ways of communicating as they grow older.

Raising children in wild nature based on imitation and stereotyping; they are looked after most of the time and punished when necessary; they learn about what is edible by watching mothers and learn gestures and vocal communication mostly through trial and error. Assimilation of communicative stereotypes of behavior is a gradual process. Most interesting features communicative behavior in primates is easier to understand given the circumstances in which different types signals - chemical, tactile, sound and visual.
6.3.1. TACTILE SENSITIVITY. TOUCH
On the surface of the body of animals there is a huge number of receptors, which are the endings of sensitive nerve fibers. According to the nature of sensitivity, receptors are divided into pain, temperature (heat and cold) and tactile (mechanoreceptors).

Touch is the ability of animals to perceive external influences carried out by the receptors of the skin and the musculoskeletal system.

The tactile sensation can be varied, as it arises as a result of a complex perception of the various properties of the stimulus acting on the skin and subcutaneous tissues. Through touch, the shape, size, temperature, consistency of the stimulus, the position and movement of the body in space, etc. are determined. Touch is based on irritation of specialized receptors and transformation in the central nervous system incoming signals to the corresponding type of sensitivity (tactile, temperature, pain).

But the main receptors that perceive these stimuli and partly the position of the body in space in mammals are hair, especially whiskers. Vibrissae react not only to touches to surrounding objects, but also to air vibrations. In norniks, which have a wide surface of contact with the walls of the burrow, vibrissae, except for the head, are scattered throughout the body. In climbing forms, for example, in squirrels and lemurs, they are also located on the ventral surface and on parts of the limbs that come into contact with the substrate when moving through trees.

Tactile sensation is due to irritation of mechanoreceptors (Pacini and Meissner bodies, Merkel discs, etc.) located in the skin at some distance from each other. Animals are able to quite accurately determine the location of irritations: crawling of insects on the skin or their bites cause a sharp motor and defensive reaction. The highest concentration of receptors in most animals is noted in the head region, respectively, areas of the scalp, mucous membranes of the oral cavity of the lips, eyelids and tongue have the highest sensitivity to touch. In the first days of life of a young mammal, the main tactile organ is the oral cavity. Touching the lips causes him to suck.

Continuous action on mechano- and thermoreceptors leads to a decrease in their sensitivity, i.e. they quickly adapt to these factors. Skin sensitivity is closely related to internal organs(stomach, intestines, kidneys, etc.). So it is enough to apply irritation to the skin in the stomach area in order to get an increased acidity of gastric juice.

When the pain receptors are stimulated, the resulting excitation is transmitted along the sensory nerves to the cerebral cortex. In this case, the incoming impulses are identified as emerging pain. The feeling of pain is of great importance: pain signals disorders in the body. The excitation threshold of pain receptors is species-specific. So, in dogs it is somewhat lower than, for example, in humans. Irritation of pain receptors causes reflex changes: increased release of adrenaline, increased blood pressure and other phenomena. Under the action of certain substances, such as novocaine, pain receptors are turned off. This is used for local anesthesia during operations.

Irritation of the temperature receptors of the skin is the cause of the sensation of heat and cold. Two types of thermoreceptors can be distinguished: cold and heat. Temperature receptors are unevenly distributed in different areas of the skin. In response to irritation of temperature receptors, the lumen of blood vessels reflexively narrow or expand, as a result of this, heat transfer changes, and the behavior of animals also changes accordingly.

Tactile communication in different taxonomic groups
Although the sense of touch is somewhat limited in its ability to transmit information compared to other senses, in many ways it is the main communication channel for almost all types of living matter that respond to physical contact.

Invertebrates . Tactile communication appears to be dominant in the social interactions of many invertebrates; for example, blind workers in some termite colonies that never leave their underground tunnels, or earthworms that crawl out of their burrows at night to mate. Tactile signals are the main ones in a number of aquatic coelenterates: jellyfish, anemones, hydras. Tactile communication is of great importance for colonial coelenterates. So, when touching a separate section of a colony of hydroid polyps, the animals immediately shrink into tiny lumps. Immediately after this, all other individuals of the colony shrink. Tactile communication, by its very nature, is only possible at very close range. The long antennae of cockroaches and crayfish act as "scouts" that allow them to explore the world within a radius of one body length, but this is almost the limit of touch. In invertebrates, touch is closely related to chemical sensitivity, because specialized tactile organs, such as insect antennae or palps, are often also equipped with chemoreceptors. Social insects, through a combination of tactile and chemical signals, transmit to members of their colony families. a large number of varied information. In a colony of social insects, individuals constantly come into direct bodily contact with each other. The constant licking and sniffing of each other by ants testifies to the importance of touch as one of the means by which these insects organize into a colony. In colonies of some species of wasps, where the females are united in a hierarchy system, a sign of submission at a meeting is the regurgitation of food, which the dominant wasp immediately eats.

higher vertebrates . Tactile communication remains important in many vertebrates, in particular birds and mammals, the most social species of which spend a significant part of their time in physical contact with each other. They have an important place in the relationship is the so-called grooming, or care for feather or coat. It consists in mutual cleaning, licking or simply sorting out feathers or wool. Grooming performed by the female in the process of raising offspring, and mutual grooming of cubs in the litter, plays an important role in their physical and emotional development. Bodily contact between individuals in social species serves as a necessary link in the regulation of relationships between members of the community. So, one of the most effective ways, which are usually resorted to by small songbirds - finches, to pacify an aggressive neighbor, is "demonstration of an invitation to clean the feather." With possible aggression of one of the birds directed at another, the object of attack lifts its head high and at the same time puffs up the plumage of the throat or occiput. The reaction of the aggressor is completely unexpected. Instead of attacking a neighbor, he begins to obediently sort out the loose plumage of his throat or nape with his beak. A similar display occurs in some rodents. When two animals that occupy different levels of the hierarchical ladder meet, the subordinate animal allows the dominant to lick its fur. Allowing a high-ranking individual to touch itself, a low-ranking one thereby shows its humility and transfers the potential aggressiveness of the dominant in another direction.

Friendly bodily contact is widespread among highly organized animals. Touch and other tactile signals are widely used in monkey communication. Langurs, baboons, gibbons, and chimpanzees often hug each other in a friendly manner, and a baboon may lightly touch, push, pinch, bite, sniff, or even kiss another baboon as a sign of genuine sympathy. When two chimpanzees meet for the first time, they may gently touch the stranger's head, shoulder, or thigh.

Monkeys constantly sort out wool - they clean each other, which serves as a manifestation of true closeness, intimacy. Grooming is especially important in those groups of primates where social dominance is maintained, such as rhesus monkeys, baboons and gorillas. In such groups, a subordinate individual often communicates, by smacking his lips loudly, that she wants to clean another, occupying a higher position in the social hierarchy. In monkeys, grooming is a typical example of sociosexual contact. Although this kind of relationship often unites animals of the same sex, nevertheless, such contacts are more often observed between females and males, with the former playing an active role, licking and combing the males, while the latter are limited to exposing their partner to certain parts of their bodies. This behavior is not directly related to sexual relationships, although occasionally grooming leads to copulation.
6.3.2. CHEMOCOMMUNICATION
The perception of taste. The sense of taste is of great importance for animals. By taste, they determine the edibility or inedibility of the tested product. Substances used as medicines or mineral supplements have a very special taste. Of great importance for animals is the taste of food, many of them have very special taste preferences. Owners of a variety of pets are well aware of how picky their pets are sometimes in food.

Taste sensation is produced by exposure to solutions chemical substances on chemoreceptors of taste formations of the tongue and oral mucosa; this results in sensations of bitter, sour, sweet, salty, or mixed tastes. The taste sense in newborn cubs awakens before all other sensations.

Based on the selective and highly sensitive reaction of sensory cells, the sense of taste and smell arises.

Olfactory communication , smell. The sense of smell is the perception by animals through the corresponding organs of a certain property (smell) of chemical compounds in the environment. The sense of smell differs from taste reception in that the odorous substances perceived with its help are usually present in lower concentrations. They serve only as signals indicating certain objects or events in the external environment. Terrestrial animals perceive odorous substances in the form of vapors delivered to the olfactory organ with air current or by diffusion, and water ones - in the form of solutions. For many animals: insects, fish, predators, rodents, the sense of smell is more important than sight and hearing, because it gives them more information about the environment. Sensitivity to odors is sometimes simply fantastic: for example, the males of some butterflies react to a few molecules of the female sex pheromone in a cubic meter of air. The degree of development of the sense of smell can vary quite strongly even within the same taxonomic group of animals. So, mammals are divided into macrosmatics, in which the sense of smell is well developed (the majority of species belong to them), microsmatics - with a relatively weak development of smell (seals, baleen whales, primates) and anosmatics, in which typical organs of smell are absent (toothed whales). The sense of smell serves animals for searching and choosing food, tracking down prey, escaping from the enemy, for bioorientation and biocommunication (marking the territory, finding and recognizing a sexual partner, etc.). Fish, amphibians, mammals distinguish well the smells of individuals of their own and other species, and common group smells allow animals to distinguish "friends" from "strangers".

The number of odorous substances is huge, and the smell of each of them is unique: no two different chemical compounds have exactly the same smell. According to the effect of odors on the dog's body, they can be divided into attractive and exciting, repulsive and indifferent. Attractive and exciting odors have a positive physiological significance for the animal organism. These odors include: the smell of food, the smell of the secretions of the female during the breeding season, the smell of the owner for the dog, etc.

Repulsive odors do not have a positive physiological significance and cause reactions in the body aimed at getting rid of their action. An example of such odors can be pungent odors of perfume, tobacco, paint. For some animals, this smell will be the smell of a predator.

Olfactory acuity (absolute threshold) is measured by the minimum concentration of odorous substances that causes an olfactory reaction. The sensitivity of the sense of smell to the same smell in an animal can vary depending on its physiological state. It decreases with general fatigue, runny nose, and also with fatigue of the olfactory analyzer itself, with too long a sufficiently strong odor on the olfactory cells of the animal.

To determine the direction of the source of the smell, the humidity of the animal's nose is important. It is necessary to determine the direction of the wind, and therefore the direction from which the smell was brought. Without wind, animals detect smells only at very close distances. The side cuts on the nose of mammals are designed to perceive odors brought by side and rear winds.

Pheromones. A special group of odorous substances are pheromones, which are usually secreted by animals with the help of special glands into the environment and regulate the behavior of representatives of the same species. Pheromones are biological markers of their own species, volatile chemosignals that control neuroendocrine behavioral responses, developmental processes, as well as many processes associated with social behavior and reproduction. If in vertebrates olfactory signals act, as a rule, in combination with others - visual, auditory, tactile signals, then in insects pheromone can play the role of the only "key stimulus" that completely determines their behavior.

Communication with the help of pheromones is usually considered as a complex system that includes the mechanisms of pheromone biosynthesis, its release into the environment, distribution in it, its perception by other individuals and analysis of the received signals.

Interesting ways to ensure the species specificity of pheromones. The composition of the pheromone always includes several chemicals. Usually these are organic compounds with a low molecular weight - from 100 to 300. Species differences in their mixtures are achieved in one of three ways: 1) the same set of substances with different ratios for each species; 2) one or more common substances, but different additional substances for each species; 3) completely different substances in each species.

The most famous are the following pheromones:

• 
  epagons, "love pheromones" or sex attractants;
• 
  odmihnions, "guiding threads" showing the way to the house or to the found prey, they are also marks on the borders of an individual territory;
• 
  toribones, pheromones of fear and anxiety;
• 
  gonophions, pheromones that change sexual properties;
• 
  gamophions, pheromones of puberty;
• 
  etophions, behavioral pheromones;
• 
  lichneumones, taste pheromones.

Individual scent. The smell is a kind of "calling card" of the animal. He is purely individual. But at the same time, the smell is species-specific, by which animals clearly distinguish representatives of their own species from any other. Members of the same group or flock, in the presence of individual differences, also have a common specific group smell.

The individual smell of an animal is formed from a number of components: its gender, age, functional state, stage of the sexual cycle, etc. This information can be encoded by a number of odorous substances that make up urine, their ratio and concentration. Individual odor can change under the influence of various causes throughout the life of the animal. The microbial landscape plays a huge role in creating an individual smell. Microorganisms living in the cavities of the skin glands are actively involved in the synthesis of pheromones. The sources of odor are the products of incomplete anaerobic oxidation of the secrets secreted by the animal in various body cavities and glands. The transfer of bacteria from individual to individual can be carried out in the process of interaction between members of the group: mating, feeding the young, childbirth, etc. Thus, within each population, a certain group-wide microflora is maintained, providing a similar smell.

The role of smell in some forms of behavior
The sense of smell is extremely important in the life of animals of many taxonomic groups. With the help of smell, animals can navigate in relation to some physiological conditions that are inherent in this moment other members of the group. For example, fright, excitement, degree of saturation, illness are accompanied in animals and humans by a change in the usual body odor.

Olfactory communication is especially important for the processes associated with reproduction. In many vertebrates and invertebrates, specific sex pheromones have been found. So, some insects, fish, tailed amphibians have pheromones that stimulate the development of female gonads and secondary sexual characteristics in females. The pheromones of males of some fish accelerate the maturation of females, synchronizing the reproduction of the population.

Termites and ants close to them are endowed with a functional system of inhibition of the development of females and males. As long as the worker ants lick the required doses of gonophions from the abdomen of the egg-laying female, there will be no new females in the nest. Its gonophyons inhibit ovarian development in worker ants. But as soon as oviparous female dies, some worker ants immediately begin to bear fruit. In 1954, Butler discovered that the jaw glands of the queen bees secrete a special uterine substance, which she smears over the body, allowing the worker ants to lick it off. Its main role is to suppress the development of ovaries in worker bees. But as soon as the uterus disappears, and with it this pheromone, many ordinary family members immediately begin to develop ovaries. These bees then lay eggs, even though they are not fertilized. The same happens when the uterine pheromone is not enough for all members of the bee colony. Biological activity This pheromone is so high that a worker bee only needs to touch the body of a living or dead queen with its proboscis, as inhibition of ovarian development occurs.

Of great importance for sexual behavior are pheromones secreted by females to attract males. During estrus in female mammals, the secretion of many skin glands, especially those surrounding the anogenital zone, increases, the secretion of which at this time contains sex hormones and pheromones. In even greater quantities during estrus, these substances are also found in the urine of females. They contribute to the creation of odors that attract the attention of males.

A number of pheromones - gonophions, described in invertebrates, contribute to the change of sex of the animal during its life. The marine polychaete worm ofriotroch is always male at the beginning of its life, and when it grows up, it turns into a female. Adult females of these worms release gonophyon into the water, causing the females to turn into males. Something similar happens in some gastropods. They are also males in their youth, and then become females.

The males of many insects different parts of their body they carry glands, the secret of which gives females an incentive to reproduce. Adult male desert locusts, by releasing special pheromones, accelerate the maturation of young locusts.

In mammals, gamophions are described, perceived mainly by smell. They play an important role in reproduction. Mice have been the best studied in this regard. The urine of aggressive males contains the pheromone of aggression, which includes metabolites of male sex hormones. This pheromone can promote aggression in dominant males and submissive responses in low-ranking males. In addition to aggression, the smell of the urine of male house mice causes many other behavioral and physiological reactions in individuals of the same species. So, for example, the smell of an unfamiliar male suppresses the exploration of a new territory by other males, attracts females, blocks pregnancy, causes synchronization and acceleration of estrus cycles, accelerates puberty young females and inhibits the normal development of spermatogenesis in young males.

Since the sex hormones and pheromones of all mammals are basically the same, similar phenomena are observed in animals of other species.

The sense of smell is one of the earliest senses "turned on" in ontogeny. Cubs already in the first days after birth remember the smell of their mother. By this time, they have already fully developed the nervous structures that provide the perception of smell. The smell of pups plays an important role in the development of normal maternal behavior in the bitch. During lactation, females produce a special, maternal pheromone, which gives a specific smell to the cubs and ensures a normal relationship between them and the mother.

A specific smell also appears when the animal is afraid. With emotional arousal, the secretion of the sweat glands sharply increases. Sometimes in animals, in this case, an involuntary release of the secret of odorous glands, urination, and even fecal eruption occurs. Of great informational value are odorous marks with which animals mark their possessions.

Territory marking. The sense of smell plays a huge role in the territorial behavior of animals. Almost all animals mark their areas with a specific smell. Marking is an extremely important form of behavior for many species of terrestrial animals: leaving odorous substances at different points in their habitat, they signal themselves to other individuals. Thanks to odorous marks, a more even, and most importantly, structured distribution of individuals in the population occurs, opponents, avoiding direct contacts that could lead to injuries, receive fairly complete information about the "host", and sexual partners find each other more easily.

Skin glands of mammals. The entire skin of mammals is densely permeated with numerous glands. According to the structure and nature of the secretions secreted, the skin glands are divided into two types - sweat and sebaceous. The secrets of all skin glands are products of secretion of the glandular cells that make up their walls.

Sweat glands that secrete a liquid secret - sweat - play the role of additional excretory organs in the body. In addition, sweating helps to cool the skin and plays an important role in thermoregulation. The intensity of sweating depends to a large extent on the ambient temperature, but can also occur under the influence of other factors, including emotional ones. Sweating is regulated by the endocrine system and nerve centers located in the brain and spinal cord. The sebaceous glands have a slightly different type of secretion than the sweat glands. Nevertheless, they function, as a rule, together, having common external excretory ducts.

In addition to the usual skin glands, some mammals also have specific odorous glands called musk glands. Their secretions have multiple functions: it facilitates the meeting of individuals of different sexes, is used to mark the occupied territory, and serves as a means of protection from enemies. These are the musk glands of the musk deer, musk ox, shrew, desman, muskrat; caudal, perineal and anal glands of some carnivores; ungulate and horn glands of goats, chamois and some other artiodactyls; preorbital glands of deer and antelopes, etc. The odorous glands of some mustelids have exceptionally protective value. So, for example, in a skunk, these secretions are so caustic that they cause nausea in a person who has been exposed to them, and sometimes fainting. In addition, the smell of skunk secretions is extremely persistent and persists in the external environment for a long time.

Territory marking. Most animals are somehow tied to their habitat. The sharpness of competition for territory is to some extent prevented by the marking of an occupied habitat by its owner. This phenomenon is widespread among mammals and is carried out by leaving their traces in prominent places; marks in the form of secretions of odorous glands, excrement, scuffs or scratches on the bark of trees, stones or dry soil, retaining the smell of secretions from the plantar glands. Deer and some antelopes mark the territory they occupy with the abundantly secreted odorous secret of the preorbital glands, for which they rub their snouts against branches and tree trunks. Roe deer, chamois, snow goats butt bushes during the rut, leaving odorous secretions of the thoracic gland on them. Musk peccary lays a fragrant track, erasing the secret of the dorsal musky gland on its way on the hanging branches. The bear also sometimes leaves an odorous trail, rising on its hind legs near the trunks of trees and rubbing its muzzle and back against them, more often it rips off the bark with its claws, putting the secret of the plantar glands on the scuffs. Animals living in burrows constantly leave odorous traces on the walls of the burrow. In rural areas and in cities, it is easy to trace the markings in domestic cats. Passing by the marked object, the cat stops, turns its back to it and splashes out a little urine with a particularly pungent odor, while making characteristic movements of the tail. All "outstanding" objects are subject to marking: roof ridge, corners of buildings, poles, hummocks, tree trunks, car wheels, etc. Subsequently, such points are marked by all the cats in the area. Marking urination is fundamentally different from "hygienic" urination, when a cat first digs a hole in the substrate and then carefully buries its derivatives to mask the smell. All members of the canine family also mark their territory with urine. Males raise their legs and mark all possible outstanding objects: trees, poles, stones, etc. Each subsequent male always tries to leave his mark higher than the previous one. Bitches also mark their territory. Marking behavior is especially enhanced before and during estrus. In places of mass walks of domestic dogs, specific urinary points are formed. By sniffing the marks left by other dogs on a walk, dogs get a lot of valuable and interesting information. Cal. When defecating, many animals try to leave it on the highest possible places, sometimes even sticking it to tree trunks or stones.

The borders of the territory of the habitat of a pack of dogs or wolves are subjected to intensive marking with the help of urine. Usually this is done by the dominant male. As F. Mowat (1968) writes, a pack of wolves makes a detour of the "family lands" about once a week and refreshes boundary marks. The English researcher F. Mowat studied the behavior of the polar wolves of Alaska and lived in a tent on the territory of the pack. Once, at a time when the wolves went hunting at night, the scientist decided in the same way to "stake out" "his" territory with an area of ​​about three hundred square meters. Returning from the hunt, the male wolf immediately noticed F. Mowat's marks and began to study them... , which I staked out for myself. Approaching the next "border" sign, he sniffed it once or twice, then diligently made his mark on the same tuft of grass or on a stone, but from the outside. In some fifteen minutes, the operation was completed .Then, the wolf came out on the path where my possessions ended, and trotted off to the house, giving me food for the most serious reflections. (F. Mowat. Do not scream, wolves! M., 1968, p. 75.)

This example shows that the marks of an individual of one species can be understandable and informative for individuals of another species.
6.3.3. VISUAL COMMUNICATION
Vision plays a huge role in the life of animals. This is one of the important sensory channels that connect with the outside world. While sound signals can be perceived by animals at a fairly large distance, and olfactory ones turn out to be quite informative even in the absence of other individuals in the field of vision or hearing, visual signals can act only at a relatively short distance.

A key role in visual communication is played by the postures and body movements with which animals communicate their intentions. In many cases, such postures are supplemented by sound signals. At a relatively large distance, alarms in the form of flickering spots can act white color: a tail or a spot on the rear of deer, the tails of rabbits, seeing which, representatives of the same species rush to flight, not even seeing the very source of danger.

Communication using visual signals is especially characteristic of vertebrates, cephalopods and insects, i.e. for animals with well developed eyes. It is interesting to note that color vision is almost universal in all groups, with the exception of most mammals. The bright multicolored coloration of some fish, reptiles, and birds contrasts strikingly with the universal grey, black, and brown coloration of most mammals.

Many arthropods have well-developed color vision, yet visual signaling is not very common among them, although color signals are used in courtship displays, such as in butterflies and fiddling crabs.

In vertebrates, visual communication has acquired a particularly important role for the process of communication between individuals. In almost all of their taxonomic groups, there are many ritualized movements, postures and whole complexes of fixed actions that play the role of key stimuli for the implementation of many forms of instinctive behavior.

The visual analyzer consists of a perceiving apparatus - the eye, pathways - the optic nerve and the visual center in the cerebral cortex.

The refractive structures of the eye form a system of specialized formations. The transparent cornea has a convex shape. Behind the iris is a transparent biconvex body - the lens. It is the main part of the eye that refracts light. The shape of the lens changes in the process of accommodation of the eye to the vision of near or distant objects. When the animal looks into the distance, the ciliary muscle relaxes, and the lens ligaments stretch - this causes the lens to flatten. In the event that the object under consideration is at a close distance, the ciliary muscle contracts, as a result of which the lens ligaments relax, and the lens, as an elastic body, takes on a more convex shape. Primates have the greatest ability to accommodate, and species leading a nocturnal lifestyle have the least.
Features of vision of representatives of different taxonomic groups
In different representatives of the animal world, depending on their anatomical structure and living conditions, the organs of vision are arranged somewhat differently.

Arthropods. Vision plays a significant role in the communication of crabs, lobsters, and other crustaceans. The brightly colored claws of male crabs attract females and at the same time warn rival males to keep their distance. Some types of crabs perform a mating dance, while they swing their large claws in a rhythm characteristic of this species. Many deep sea invertebrates, such as sea ​​worm Odontosyllis, have rhythmically flashing luminous organs called photophores.

Insects. The visual signals of insects perform various functions. The pinnacle of the development of the instinctive components of communication behavior is the ritualization of behavior, which consists in a certain sequence of movements, which is especially clearly manifested in the sexual behavior of insects, in particular, in the "courtship of males" for females. Threatening movements are also ritualized to a large extent. An extremely interesting form of visual communication, which can operate over very long distances, is observed in fireflies. Their means of attracting individuals of the opposite sex are luminescent flashes of cold yellow-green light, produced at a certain frequency. In addition, some types of fireflies use light signals for other purposes. Thus, unfertilized females of the firefly Photuris versicolor emit species-specific complexes of flashes of light in response to signals from males that approach them to mate. After mating, the female ceases to glow, and in the next two nights her behavior changes. She assumes a predatory pose with her front legs raised and her jaws open. Now she starts to glow again, but no longer uses the code that is characteristic of her species. It emits signals characteristic of a related smaller species from the same genus. When a male cricket of this species approaches her, she kills and eats him.

bee dancing. The bees, having found a source of food, return to the hive and notify the rest of the bees of its location and distance with the help of special movements on the surface of the hive (the so-called bee dance). The dances of bees represent a highly sophisticated way of visual communication, which even higher vertebrates do not have. Having found a source of food and returned to the hive, the bee distributes samples of nectar to other bees-gatherers and proceeds to the "dance", which consists of running through the combs. The pattern of the dance depends on the location of the detected food source: if it is near the hive (at a distance of 2-5 meters from it), then a "push dance" is performed. It lies in the fact that the bee randomly runs through the combs, wagging its abdomen from time to time. If food is found at a distance of up to 100 meters, then a "circular" dance is performed, consisting of running in a circle alternately clockwise and counterclockwise. If the nectar is found at a greater distance, then a "waggling" dance is performed, consisting of runs in a straight line, accompanied by wagging movements of the abdomen with a return to the starting point either on the right or on the left. The intensity of the wagging movements indicates the distance of the find: the closer the food object is, the more intensively the dance is performed. In addition to the distance, with the help of the dance, the bees also indicate the direction to the stern. So, in the second form of the dance, the angle between the line of running and the vertical on vertically arranged combs corresponds to the angle between the line of flight of the bee from the hive to the food object and the position of the sun. The bee dancing on the honeycombs immediately attracts the attention of other gatherers, who, immediately after the end of the dance, go flying for a bribe.

Fish. Fish have good eyesight, but see poorly in the dark, such as in the depths of the ocean. Most fish perceive color to some degree. This is important during the mating season, as the bright colors of individuals of the same sex, usually males, attract individuals of the opposite sex. Color changes serve as a warning to other fish that they should not trespass. During the breeding season, some fish, such as the three-spined stickleback, arrange mating dances; others, such as catfish, show threat by turning their mouths wide open towards the intruder.

Amphibians. Visual communication plays a major role in orientation in terrestrial amphibians. Compared to fish, the cornea of ​​the eye in amphibians is more convex and protected from drying out for centuries. Stationary amphibians distinguish only moving objects, but when moving, they begin to distinguish between stationary ones.

In the spring, during the breeding season, the males of many amphibian species acquire a bright coloration, which, in combination with a complex of ritual movements, is important for sexual selection. In some many species of frogs and toads, a brightly colored throat, for example, dark yellow with black spots, is observed not only in males, but also in females, and usually in latest color its brighter. Some species use the seasonal coloration of the throat not only to attract a mate, but also as a visual signal that the territory is occupied. Among amphibians, there are quite a few species that have glands with a caustic or poisonous secretion. Many of them have bright warning colors.

Reptiles. Many reptiles drive away aliens of their own or other species that invade their territory, demonstrating threatening behavior - they open their mouths, inflate parts of their bodies (like a spectacled snake), beat with their tails, etc. Snakes have relatively weak eyesight, they see the movement of objects, and not their shape and color; species that hunt in open places are distinguished by sharper vision. Some lizards, such as geckos and chameleons, perform ritual dances during courtship or sway in a peculiar way when moving. Many lizards, for example, steppe agamas, acquire a bright color during the breeding season, which intensifies during aggressive collisions.

Birds. Since visual communication is the leading one for birds, they have well-developed eyes. Birds have exceptional vigilance and are able to distinguish colors and shades well, as well as visual stimuli with different wavelengths. The visual acuity of some birds of prey is a world record among other representatives of the animal world. Since birds have well developed color vision, a variety of color signals are of great importance for them. Thus, birds remember wasp stings well and in the future avoid dealing with yellow-black insects. Male robins show aggression towards any image of a bird with a red breast. Male gazebo birds, found in Australia and New Guinea, build and decorate special gazebos in order to attract females. Usually, the duller the color of the bird, the richer and more refined its arbor is decorated. Some birds pick up snail shells, bones that have turned white from time to time, as well as everything that is painted blue: flowers, feathers, berries. Birds, mostly males, use their flashy appearance to scare away rival males and attract females to them. However, the bright plumage attracts predators, so females and young birds have a camouflage coloration. bright coloring has the inside of the oral cavity in chicks, which works as a key irritant for the feeding procedure.

Males of many species of birds during the breeding season adopt complex signaling postures, clean their feathers, perform mating dances and perform various other actions accompanied by sound signals. Head and tail feathers, crowns and crests, even an apron-like arrangement of breast feathers are used by males to show readiness for mating. The obligatory love ritual of the wandering albatross is an elaborate mating dance performed jointly by the male and female.

The mating behavior of male birds sometimes resembles acrobatic stunts. So, the male of one of the species of birds of paradise does a real somersault: sitting on a branch in front of the female, tightly presses his wings to his body, falls from the branch, makes a complete somersault in the air and lands in his original position. Widespread in the world of birds and a variety of ritualized movements associated with defensive behavior.

Of particular importance is vision in the long-range orientation of migrating birds. So, the orientation of birds according to topographic features, for example, along the coastline, polarized illumination of the sky and astronomical landmarks - the sun, stars, is well studied.

mammals. The visual communication of mammals mainly consists in the transfer of information through facial expressions, postures and movements. They contribute to the development of ritualized behaviors that are important for maintaining hierarchical order in the group. Such postures and facial movements are characteristic of all mammalian species, but they acquire the greatest significance in species with a high level of socialization. Thus, about 90 stereotyped species-specific sequences of movements have been identified in dogs and wolves. This is, first of all, facial expressions. Changing the expression of the "face" is achieved through movements of the ears, nose, lips, tongue, eyes. Another important means of expressing a state in a dog is its tail. In a calm state, he is in the usual position, characteristic of the breed. Threatening, the animal holds the tousled tail tensely raised upwards. Low-ranking animals lower their tail low, pressing it between their legs. In the movement of the tail, speed and amplitude are important. Free tail wagging is seen in interactions of a friendly nature. During the salutation ritual, the wagging of the tail is carried out intensively. The tension of the whole body, the rise of hair on the scruff, etc., also speak volumes. In stable groups, interactions take the form of demonstrations in which the social rank of the animal is revealed. It is especially pronounced during meetings. A high-status dog is active, sniffing its partner with its tail held high. A low-ranking dog, on the contrary, tucks its tail, freezes, allowing itself to be sniffed, the final submission posture is a fall on its back, substituting the most sensitive areas of its body for the dominant. Between these extreme positions there are many transitional states.

Observations of the behavior of wolves in an enclosure show that battles between them, which can cause the death of one of them, are extremely rare. As K. Lorenz notes, the key signal for them, as if turning off aggressive behavior, is the turn of one of the wolves to the opponent with a curved neck. Substituting his most vulnerable part (the place where the jugular vein passes), he, as it were, gives himself up to the mercy of the winner, and he immediately accepts "surrender". Wolves in battle act as if according to a premeditated ritual. Therefore, all these phenomena are called ritual behavior. It is possessed not only by predators, but to a greater or lesser extent by all mammals. Ritual behavior is often formed from the most ordinary movements of the animal, originally associated with completely different needs. So, for example, the mating posture often becomes the dominance posture of one animal over another. Visual communication is of great importance for primates. Their language of facial expressions and gestures reaches great perfection. The main visual signals of higher apes are gestures, facial expressions, and sometimes also the position of the body and the color of the muzzle. Among the threatening signals are unexpected jumping to their feet and pulling their heads into their shoulders, slamming their hands on the ground, violent shaking of trees and random scattering of stones. Showing off the bright color of the muzzle, the African mandrill tames subordinates. In a similar situation, a proboscis monkey from the island of Borneo displays its huge nose. A gaze from a baboon or gorilla means a threat. In the baboon, it is accompanied by frequent blinking, moving the head up and down, flattening the ears, and arching the eyebrows. To maintain order in the group, dominant baboons and gorillas now and then cast icy gazes at females, cubs and subordinate males. When two unfamiliar gorillas suddenly come face to face, a closer look can be a challenge. At first, there is a roar, two mighty animals retreat, and then sharply approach each other, bowing their heads forward. Stopping just before touching, they begin to stare into each other's eyes until one of them backs off. Real contractions are rare.

Signals such as grimacing, yawning, moving the tongue, flattening the ears, and smacking the lips can be either friendly or unfriendly. So, if the baboon presses his ears, but does not accompany this action with a direct look or blinking, his gesture means submission.

Chimpanzees use a rich facial expression to communicate. For example, tightly clenched jaws with exposed gums mean a threat; frown - intimidation; a smile, especially with a tongue hanging out, is friendliness; pulling back the lower lip until the teeth and gums show - a peaceful smile; by pouting, a mother chimpanzee expresses her love for her cub; repeated yawning means confusion or embarrassment. Chimpanzees often yawn when they notice that someone is watching them.

Some primates use their tails to communicate. For example, the male lemur rhythmically moves his tail before mating, and the female langur lowers her tail to the ground when the male approaches her. In some primate species, subordinate males raise their tails when approached by a dominant male, indicating their belonging to a lower social rank.
6.3.4. ACOUSTIC COMMUNICATION
Acoustic communication in its capabilities occupies an intermediate position between optical and chemical. Like visual signals, sounds made by animals are a means of conveying emergency information. Their action is limited by the time of the current activity of the animal transmitting the message. Apparently, it is no coincidence that in very many cases expressive movements in animals are accompanied by corresponding sounds. But, unlike visual, acoustic signals can be transmitted at a distance in the absence of visual, tactile or olfactory contact between partners. Acoustic signals, like chemical ones, can operate at a great distance or in complete darkness. But at the same time, they are the antipode of chemical signals, since they do not have a long-term effect. Thus, the sound signals of animals are a means of emergency communication for transmitting messages both with direct visual, tactile contact between partners, and in its absence. The transmission range of acoustic information is determined by four main factors: 1) sound intensity; 2) signal frequency; 3) the acoustic properties of the medium through which the message is transmitted; and 4) the hearing thresholds of the animal receiving the signal. Sound signals transmitted over long distances are known from insects, amphibians, birds, and many species of medium to large mammals.

Sound propagation is a wave process. The sound source transmits vibrations to the particles of the environment, and they, in turn, to neighboring particles, thus creating a series of alternating compressions and rarefactions with an increase and decrease in air pressure. These motions of particles are graphically depicted as a sequence of waves, the peaks of which correspond to compressions, and the troughs between them correspond to rarefaction. The speed of these waves in a given medium is the speed of sound. The number of waves passing per second through any point in space is called the frequency of sound vibrations. The ear of an animal species perceives sound only in a limited range of frequencies, or wavelengths. Waves with a frequency below 20 Hz are not perceived as sounds, but are felt as vibrations. At the same time, oscillations with a frequency above 20,000 Hz (the so-called ultrasonic) are also inaccessible to the human ear, but are perceived by the ears of a number of animals. Another characteristic of sound waves is the intensity, or loudness, of the sound, which is determined by the distance from the peak or trough of the wave to the midline. Intensity is also a measure of the energy of sound.

Sound signals. Sound signals emitted by animals can be perceived by them at a great distance. The tone and frequency of sound signals depend on the way of life of animals. So, low-frequency sounds penetrate best through dense vegetation; this type of signal usually includes the calls of forest tropical birds, as well as the monkeys that inhabit these forests. The sounds made by many primates are specially designed to be audible over long distances. The propagation of a sound signal also depends on how it is produced. Territorial birds sing their songs, choosing for this the highest point of the area ("song post"), which increases the efficiency of their distribution. Birds in open landscapes, such as larks and meadow pipits, sing as they fly high above their nesting grounds. In water, sounds propagate with less attenuation than in air, and therefore aquatic animals widely use them for communication. The distance record in the sound communication of animals was set by humpback whales, their songs can be perceived by other whales located at a distance of several tens of kilometers.

Acoustic communication is of great importance for reproduction. So, the roar of bull deer has a stimulating effect on the sexual sphere of females, this ensures the synchronization of puberty. In deer, only males roar during the mating season. In foxes, cats, both males and females give voice. In moose, the female is the first to snore about her location, and then the male responds to it.

Acoustic communication means typical for representatives of the canine family are divided by most researchers into two groups: contact and distant. Contact signals include growling, whining, snorting, screeching, squeaking. These signals are emitted by animals in situations of direct contact between animals. All of them can appear in different situations. Whining is the first signal that appears in puppies. At its core, whining is a response to discomfort. Adult animals whine when exposed to pain, social isolation, friendly interactions, impatience. Screeching is a signal of pain, in most cases it blocks the aggression of the attacker. A growl is emitted by the dog during aggressive interactions, this is a threat signal. A large proportion of games, especially puppy games, are accompanied by growling. Usually alert animals snort. In domestic dogs or domesticated animals, such signals are often addressed to a person and can serve as a call for contact, a sign of impatience, or a request for something. Each of them has many modulations.

Barking and howling are distant signals. Dogs bark differently in different situations. Barking can be of different tonality, volume and frequency. By the nature of the dog's barking, an attentive owner can almost always determine its cause. So, for example, the hunter accurately determines what kind of game his husky has discovered. She barks completely differently at an elk or a bear, a squirrel or a hazel grouse. The nature of the barking of the hounds is also completely different when chasing a hare or a fox, on the trail or "in sight". In the most approximate way, barking can be divided into the following categories: barking of varying intensity with an active-defensive reaction of varying degrees; barking of varying intensity with varying degrees of passive-defensive reaction; barking greeting; barking in the game; barking indoors or on a leash; barking - a demand to attract attention, etc.

Howling is a common means of communication for members of the canine family that lead a pack lifestyle. Its significance in the lives of jackals, wolves and coyotes is manifold. Researchers of wolf behavior believe that the group howl of wolves plays the role of a territorial marker, i.e. indicates that there is a group of wolves in the area. With the help of howling, wolves and jackals call for partners.

A.N. Nikolsky and K.Kh. Frommolt (1989) divide howls of wolves into individual and group. Among group howls, one can single out spontaneous ones, when all members of the pack begin to howl almost simultaneously, and caused, arising in response to the howl of one of the members of the pack, located at a distance. Spontaneous and induced howls have different seasonal dynamics.

The howl of wolves and jackals serves to exchange a variety of information between packs. Domestic dogs howl less frequently than wolves, perhaps this feature is partially eliminated by selection in the process of domestication. Most often, they howl in isolation or in response to sounds that irritate them, such as music. Obviously, such sounds are analogous to the spontaneous howl of wolves, which excites the evoked howl.
Acoustic communication of representatives of different taxonomic groups
aquatic invertebrates. bivalves, barnacles and other similar invertebrates make sounds by opening and closing their shells or houses, and crustaceans such as spiny lobsters make loud scraping sounds by rubbing their antennae against their shells. Crabs warn or frighten off strangers by shaking their claws until it starts to crackle, and male crabs make this signal even when a person approaches. Due to the high sound conductivity of water, the signals emitted by aquatic invertebrates are transmitted over long distances.

Insects. Insects, perhaps the first on land, began to make sounds, usually similar to tapping, clapping, scratching, etc. These noises are not musical, but they are produced by highly specialized organs. The sound signals of insects are affected by the intensity of light, the presence or absence of other insects nearby, and direct contact with them.

One of the most common sounds is stridulation, i.e. chirring caused by rapid vibration or rubbing of one part of the body against another with a certain frequency and in a certain rhythm. Usually this happens according to the principle of "scraper - bow". In this case, one leg (or wing) of the insect, which has 80-90 small teeth along the edge, quickly moves back and forth along the thickened part of the wing or other part of the body. Locusts and grasshoppers use just such a chirring mechanism, while grasshoppers and trumpeters rub their modified forewings against each other.

The loudest chirping is distinguished by male cicadas. On the underside of the abdomen of these insects there are two membranous membranes - the so-called. timbal organs. These membranes are equipped with muscles and can bend in and out, like the bottom of a tin can. When the muscles of the timbales contract rapidly, the claps or clicks coalesce to create an almost continuous sound.

Insects can produce sounds by banging their heads on a tree or leaves, their abdomens and forelegs on the ground. Some species, such as the deadhead hawk hawk, have true miniature sound chambers and produce sounds by drawing air in and out through membranes in these chambers.

Many insects, especially flies, mosquitoes, and bees, make sounds in flight by the vibration of their wings; some of these sounds are used in communication. Queen bees chirp and hum: the adult queen hums, and the immature queens chirp as they try to get out of their cells.

The vast majority of insects do not have a developed auditory apparatus and use antennas to capture sound vibrations passing through air, soil and other substrates. Some insects have a number of special, ear-like formations that contribute to a more subtle discrimination of sound signals.

Fish. The statement "mute like a fish" has long been refuted by scientists. Fish make a lot of sounds by tapping their gill covers and with the help of their swim bladder. Each species makes specific sounds. So, for example, the guinea cock cackles and cackles, the horse mackerel barks, the gorbyl drummer fish makes noisy sounds that really resemble drumming, and the sea burbot expressively rumbles and grunts. The strength of the sound of some marine fish so great that they caused explosions of acoustic mines, which became widespread in the Second World War and, naturally, were intended to destroy enemy ships. Sound signals are used for flocking, as an invitation to breed, for territory defense, and as a way of individual recognition. Fish don't have eardrums and don't hear like humans. The system of thin bones, the so-called. Weberian apparatus transmits vibrations from the swim bladder to the inner ear. The range of frequencies that fish perceive is relatively narrow - most do not hear sounds above the top "do" and best perceive sounds below "la" of the third octave.

Amphibians. Among amphibians, only frogs, toads and tree frogs make loud noises; of the salamanders, some squeak or whistle softly, others have vocal folds and emit soft barks. The sounds made by amphibians can mean a threat, a warning, a call to breed, they can be used as a signal of trouble or as a means of protecting the territory. Some species of frogs croak in groups of three, and a large chorus may consist of several loud-voiced trios.

Reptiles. Some snakes hiss, others crackle, and in Africa and Asia there are snakes that chirp with the help of scales. Since snakes and other reptiles do not have external ear holes, they only feel the vibrations that pass through the soil. So rattlesnake hardly hears his own crackling.

Unlike snakes, tropical gecko lizards have external ear openings. Geckos click very loudly and make harsh sounds.

In the spring, male alligators roar, calling for females and scaring away other males. Crocodiles make loud alarm sounds when they are frightened, and hiss loudly, threatening a stranger invading their territory. Baby alligators squeak and croak hoarsely to get their mother's attention. The Galapagos giant, or elephant, tortoise makes a low, hoarse roar, and many other tortoises hiss menacingly.

Birds. Acoustic communication has been better studied in birds than in any other animal. Birds communicate with individuals of their own species, as well as other species, including mammals and even humans. To do this, they use sound (not only voice), as well as visual signals. Thanks to the developed auditory apparatus, consisting of the outer, middle and inner ear, birds hear well. The voice apparatus of birds, the so-called. The lower larynx, or syrinx, is located in the lower part of the trachea.

Flocking birds use more diverse sound and visual signals than solitary birds, which sometimes know only one song and repeat it over and over again. Flocking birds have signals that gather a flock, announcing danger, signals "everything is calm" and even calls for a meal.

Among birds, it is predominantly males who sing, but more often not to attract females (as is usually believed), but to warn that the area is under protection. Many songs are very intricate and provoked by the release of the male sex hormone testosterone in the spring. Most of the "talk" in birds takes place between the mother and the chicks, who beg for food, and the mother feeds them, warns or soothes them.

Bird singing is shaped by both genes and training. The song of a bird that grew up in isolation turns out to be incomplete; devoid of individual "phrases" that make up the song of this type.

A non-vocal sound signal - a wing drum beat - is used by a collared hazel grouse during the mating period to attract a female and warn competing males to stay away. One of the tropical manakins snaps its tail feathers like castanets during courtship. At least one bird, the African honeyguide, communicates directly with humans. The honeyguide feeds on beeswax, but cannot extract it from hollow trees where bees make their nests. Repeatedly approaching the person, shouting loudly and then, heading towards the tree with bees, the honeyguide leads the person to their nest; after the honey is taken, it eats the remaining wax.

land mammals. Sounds produced by marmosets and great apes are relatively simple. For example, chimpanzees often scream and squeal when they are frightened or angry, and these are indeed elementary signals. However, they also have an amazing noise ritual: from time to time they gather in the forest and drum with their hands on protruding tree roots, accompanying these actions with screams, squeals and howls. This drum and song festival can last for hours and can be heard from at least a mile away. There is reason to believe that in this way chimpanzees call their fellows to places abounding in food.

Interspecific communication is widespread among primates. Langurs, for example, closely follow the alarm calls and movements of peacocks and deer. Grassland animals and baboons respond to each other's warning calls, so predators have little chance of surprise attacks.

aquatic mammals. Aquatic mammals, like land mammals, have ears consisting of an external opening, a middle ear with three auditory ossicles, and an inner ear connected by the auditory nerve to the brain. The hearing of marine mammals is excellent, it is also helped by the high sound conductivity of water.

Seals are among the noisiest aquatic mammals. During the breeding season, females and young seals howl and low, and these sounds are often initiated by the barks and roars of males. Males roar mainly in order to mark the territory, in which each collects a harem of 10-100 females. Voice communication in females is not so intense and is associated primarily with mating and caring for offspring.

Whales constantly make sounds such as clicks, creaks, sighs in low tones, as well as something like the creak of rusty hinges and muffled thuds. It is believed that many of these sounds are nothing more than echolocation used to detect food and navigate underwater. They can also be a means of maintaining group integrity.

Among aquatic mammals, the bottlenose dolphin is the undisputed champion in emitting sound signals. The sounds made by dolphins are described as groans, squeaks, whines, whistles, barks, squeals, meows, creaks, clicks, chirps, grunts, shrill cries, as well as reminiscent of the noise of a motor boat, the creak of rusty hinges, etc. These sounds consist of a continuous series of vibrations at frequencies ranging from 3,000 to over 200,000 hertz. They are produced by blowing air through the nasal passage and two valve-like structures inside the blowhole. Sounds are modified by the increase and decrease in the tension of the nasal valves and by the movement of "tongues" or "plugs" located within the airways and blowhole. The sound produced by dolphins, similar to the creaking of rusty hinges, is "sonar", a kind of echolocation mechanism. By constantly sending these sounds and receiving their reflection from underwater rocks, fish and other objects, dolphins can easily move even in complete darkness and find fish.

Dolphins certainly communicate with each other. When a dolphin emits a short dull whistle followed by a high pitched and melodic whistle, it means a distress signal and other dolphins immediately come to the rescue. The cub always responds to the whistle addressed to him by his mother. When angry, dolphins "bark" and the yapping sound, made only by males, is believed to attract females.
Ultrasonic location
Bats and a number of other animals have developed a peculiar mechanism of orientation with the help of ultrasonic location. Its essence lies in capturing, with the help of very subtle hearing, high-frequency sounds reflected by objects, emitted by the voice apparatus of the animal. By amplifying ultrasonic pulses and capturing their reflections, bat is able to determine not only the presence of an object, but also the distance to it, etc. Such a location almost completely replaces poorly developed vision. A similar type of device is also found in cetaceans, which are able to move in completely opaque water without encountering obstacles. The peculiar ultrasonic language of dolphins has been studied quite well. Echolocation created the prerequisites for the emergence of a unique communication system that is inaccessible to other animals.

The use of echolocation for communication can be combined with special communication signals. Dolphins have whistling signals called identification. Zoologists believe that this given name animal. A dolphin placed in a separate room continuously generates its call signs, clearly trying to establish sound contact with the herd. The identification signals of different dolphins are distinctly different. Sometimes animals generate "foreign" call signs. Maybe the dolphins imitate each other or, with the help of other people's call signs, call their comrades, inviting quite certain animals to a "conversation".

QUESTIONS TO CONTROL:

1. 
   What is meant by animal language?
2. 
   What are the main functions of chemcommunication?
3. 
   What role does individual smell play in the life of animals?
4. 
   Why do animals mark their territory?
5. 
   What is the role of visual communication in animal communication?

Animals that are in close contact with humans often behave as if humans belong to their own species. Anyone who keeps animals at home is repeatedly convinced of this. It took one tortoise owner some time to realize that the tortoise had made repeated attempts to groom his shoes. In zoos, it is not uncommon for male kangaroos to behave as if the upright posture of the attendant is a challenge to a fight. If the attendant leans toward the ground, which means the kangaroo has a peaceful pose, then conflict can be avoided. In the same way, many people treat animals as if they were their own kind. They talk to their pets and can even decorate them like a person, such as polishing their claws. The tendency to attribute some human characteristics to animals - the so-called anthropomorphism, - more likely of everything, originates from the instinctive recognition of signal stimuli that play an important role in social behavior person. For example, the shape of a child's head is an important factor in evoking parental feelings in an adult.

Rice. 12. General features of the head of animals and humans during infancy: a shortened front part, a rounded head shape and a high forehead.

It has been repeatedly noted that people also react to similar features of young animals. Such attractive features are often exaggerated and emphasized in friendly cartoons and advertising posters.

Along with the purely coincidental similarity between the characteristics of one animal species and the signal stimuli of another, there are many examples where natural selection has contributed to the establishment of interspecific communication. This, in particular, is manifested in the emergence of special devices that help animals escape from predators. Many animals, when detected by a predator, adopt postures that are designed to frighten it. In some cases, such a demonstration is pure deception. So, for example, many species of nocturnal and diurnal butterflies, if disturbed during rest, suddenly expose eye-like spots on the hindwings. Such eye spots are also found in cuttlefish, toads and caterpillars. Some researchers have experimentally proven that the sudden appearance of a bright color can frighten a bird, giving the butterfly a chance to escape.

Spots-eyes, which are constantly visible or exposed suddenly, have a frightening effect, probably also because they resemble the eyes of predators that attack birds. Bleet placed dead mealworms on a special box and let the birds - finches, buntings and tits - eat them. As the birds got used to their surroundings, he tested their reactions to various eye patterns. As soon as the bird landed on the box, the current turned on and two pictures began to glow on the sides of the worm. Bleeth found that circle patterns were more repulsive to birds than cruciform patterns, and the more eye-like patterns, the more effective they were in eliciting avoidance behavior. Bleeth also found that the birds quickly got used to the eye spots presented to them; and from this it seems to follow that it makes sense for insects to hide such spots until they are needed.

Rice. 13.

Fig.14. Three patterns used by Bleeth in his experiments with eye spots. When a bird sat on the apparatus to eat a flour worm, the current turned on and two circles, or two eye spots, lit up on both sides. The birds were least frightened by the model shown at the top of the figure, and most of all by the model shown at the bottom.

Some snakes mimic the color patterns and warning displays of their venomous counterparts. So, for example, in a harmless Lampropeltis elapsoides there are characteristic stripes of red, yellow and black, characteristic of the poisonous harlequin asp. The African carpet viper has a menacing display: the snake folds its body into half rings and produces a rasp or hiss by rubbing adjacent half rings against each other. This demonstration is imitated by some harmless snakes of the genus Dasypeltis. Some hollow-nesting birds hiss like snakes when disturbed while they are in the nest. Because it's dark in the hollow, predatory mammals may be frightened by such a demonstration, despite the fact that outwardly these birds do not at all resemble snakes. The caterpillars of some hawk moths have a special pattern on their heads, and when the caterpillar inflates its head, it very much resembles the head of a snake. If the caterpillar is disturbed, then it inflates its snake-like head and shakes it from side to side. She can even stab a predator.

Mimicry is a form of deception. The display of eye spots or stimuli associated with snakes is protective to the extent that it can elicit behavior in the predator that is consistent with exposure to dangerous signals. If the potential prey is not really dangerous, the predator is deceived. Another example of deception can be seen in the European anglerfish. ; this fish has a "bait" resembling a worm at the end of the rod-beam.

Rice. 15. Poisonous harlequin asp and harmless Lampropelt Lf elapsoides, which imitates it.

When the prey fish approaches this bait, the angler immediately grabs it. From an evolutionary point of view, such deception must be observed in those situations where natural selection favors the development of such acquisitions in individuals of one species that deceive individuals of another species into behavior that turns out to be harmful to them. Of course, natural selection will tend to sharpen the discriminating abilities of the prey, but this may be counteracted by the evolution of more effective mimicry. If the model that serves as a model for mimicry turns out to be more common than the animal imitating it, then it is very difficult for the prey species to avoid being deceived. So, for example, since worm-like objects are a common form of prey, an angler can easily use the prey recognition system that its prey has. To be able to distinguish true prey from disguised bait, prey had to spend a lot of time examining each potential prey item, which would reduce the effectiveness of the feeding behavior. Provided that the threatened prey is not too common compared to the true prey, natural selection brings about a compromise. This means that if the risk of encountering dangerous prey is low, then it can be balanced by the benefits of efficient feeding. However, it is important to understand that in the case of interspecies communication, when one animal species deceives another, the forces of natural selection acting on each of the species tend to achieve opposite results.

Situations in which interspecies communication is mutually beneficial are usually denoted by the concept symbiosis. One form of symbiosis known as commensalism, characterized by the fact that one species benefits from this kind of relationship, while for another such relationship is neutral.

Rice. 16. Demonstration poses of a coiled venomous African carpet viper and a harmless one imitating it Dasypeltis.

Rice. 17..

As for true symbiosis, or mutualism, then it is beneficial to both species of animals, and there is usually communication between them. For example, a honey badger lives in symbiosis with a small bird called a honeyguide. . Having found a nest of wild bees, the honeyguide looks for the honey badger and leads him to this nest with the help of special demonstration signals. Protected by thick skin, the honey badger opens the nest with powerful claws and eats honey from the combs. Honeyguides eat wax and bee larvae, which they themselves could not reach without outside help. If the honeyguide cannot find the honey badger, it tries to attract people. The natives understand this behavior of the bird and follow it to the bee's nest. According to an unwritten law, a bird is allowed to eat bee larvae.

Apparently, the communication systems used by living beings are almost universal. For reproduction, many plants attract the attention of pollinating animals (especially insects) with bright colors and pleasant smells. When reproduction has already taken place, plants turn to animals, which distribute their seeds. To get their attention, the plants offer colorful edible fruits that the animals eat. The seeds then pass through their digestive system.

If we define the act of communication as the transmission and receipt of information, then we can only talk about this phenomenon in relation to the animal kingdom, since plants do not have a nervous system and their communicative perception can be called limited at best. Communication systems in animals involve modality in every respect. The oldest systems include chemical perception, such as the sense of smell. It has been proven that unicellular organisms, such as bacteria, react to chemical traces left by other bacteria of the same species. The sense of smell plays a key role in courtship and mating in many species that use pheromones. Pheromones are chemical signals released by animals to attract a female or male and notify them that they are ready to breed. Olfactory cues also play a key role in marking territory, which dog owners can easily confirm. The dog, by urinating on various objects, leaves signs indicating that this territory belongs to him, and warning other dogs that they should stay away.

In the 1950s, ethologist Carl von Frisch discovered what has been erroneously identified as "bee language" (von Frisch, 1971). After conducting a series of complex experiments, von Frisch found that bees looking for nectar transmit information to their swarm about the location of new sources of nectar using the so-called "waddle dance" - moving "eight" along the vertical surface of the honeycombs.

At the same time, the intensity of the swaying indicates the richness of the new source of nectar, and the inclination of the "eight" in relation to the perpendicular indicates the location of this source relative to the sun. However, despite the complexity of this method, what the bees do cannot be compared with real language. In this case, the information transmitted during the communicative act is extremely limited. Moreover, the use of such symbols is not arbitrary and, apparently, is genetically fixed in the nervous system of bees. Thus, it can be said that bees use a communication system; the given type of behavior cannot be called a language in the full sense of the word.

Information about complex, highly significant behaviors, such as courtship or home defense reflexes, is communicated in a variety of ways. Birds sing to mark the boundaries of their territory and attract a mate. This does not mean that they deliberately use this type of behavior to achieve their goals. Singing is made up of certain signals, some of which are physiological, and its adaptive function is to mark the boundaries of the territory and attract partners. Birds also use visual cues, such as puffing, to convey the same information. So, red-winged thrushes mark the boundaries of the territory with the help of bunches of red feathers on the wings. If these bunches are blackened, the bird quickly loses all its grounds. As far as dogs are concerned, visual cues are important in conveying information about the different moods they are in. A dog that steps on another with its hair on end and without bending its front legs shows an aggressive stance.

A dog that bows to its partner, bending its paws, takes, on the contrary, an inviting position - it demonstrates obedience and readiness to take part in the game. Grunts and growls in dogs and other mammals almost always signal aggression and warning.

Darwin (Darwin, 1872) realized that the facial expression of a person comes directly from these earlier signals of aggression or appeasement. Even today, facial expressions serve as the main source of non-verbal information for us humans. When we doubt the veracity of what we are being told, we usually seek to see the facial expressions and eyes of the interlocutor in order to confirm the correctness of the information we received verbally.

Communication systems used by non-humans, but closest to human speech, are systems with vocal communication. Let us repeat once again that we can speak of auditory forms of communication only in relation to the animal kingdom. The study of primates, our closest relatives, provides a wealth of information about the evolutionary pattern of language as it develops. It was found that African gray monkeys, when meeting with various types Predators make various sounds (Cheney & Seyfarth, 1990). If an animal spots a leopard, it makes a special call - biologists who study these monkeys called the "leopard call" - that serves as a signal for all other monkeys to run towards the trees. If the “exclamation of an eagle” sounds, the reaction will be exactly the opposite - the monkeys will emerge from the crown of the tree and cling to the ground. If the monkeys hear the “snake call”, they will rise on their hind legs and stare intently at the grass. Experiments with sound recordings also prove that monkeys can distinguish sounds made by individual individuals. They respond differently to tape-recorded sound signals emitted by animals in a subordinate or dominant position. For example, if a monkey in a subordinate position screams, its cry is more likely to be ignored, in contrast to the same cry issued by an animal in a dominant position. Sound signals have been found to play a subtle but significant role in social interaction many other primate species. The assumption that these animals possessed the rudimentary language abilities has led to serious attempts to teach language skills to primates.

human language

Basic communication activities- language, speech. According to many researchers, speech is one of the types of communicative activity carried out in the form of linguistic communication. Everyone uses their native language to express their thoughts and understand the thoughts expressed by others. The child not only learns the words and grammatical forms of the language, but also relates them to the content that constitutes the meaning of the word assigned to him in his native language by the entire process of the history of the development of the people. However, at each stage of development, the child understands the content of the word differently. The word, along with its inherent meaning, he masters very early. The concept denoted by this word, being a generalized image of reality, grows, expands and deepens as the child develops.

Unlike perception - the process of direct reflection of things - speech is a form of mediated cognition of reality, its reflection through mother tongue. If the language is one for the whole people, then the speech of each person is individual. Therefore, speech, on the one hand, is poorer than language, since a person in the practice of communication usually uses only a small part of the vocabulary and various grammatical structures of his native language. On the other hand, speech is richer than language, since a person, speaking about something, expresses his attitude both to what he is talking about and to whom he is talking to. His speech acquires intonational expressiveness, its rhythm, tempo, and character change. Therefore, a person in communication with other people can say more than the words that he used mean (subtext of speech). But in order for a person to be able to accurately and subtly convey thoughts to another person, and in such a way as to influence him, to be correctly understood, he must be fluent in his native language.
The development of speech is the process of mastering the native language, the ability to use it as a means of knowing the world around us, mastering the experience accumulated by mankind, as a means of knowing oneself and self-regulation, as a means of communication and interaction between people.
Psychology is the study of the development of speech in ontogeny.
The physiological basis of speech is the activity of the second signal system. The doctrine of the second signal system is the doctrine of the word as a signal. Studying the patterns of reflex activity of animals and humans, I.P. Pavlov singled out the word as a special signal. A feature of the word is its generalizing nature, which significantly changes both the action of the stimulus itself and the responses of a person. The study of the meaning of the word in the formation of neural connections is the task of physiologists, who have shown the generalizing role of the word, the speed and strength of the connections formed in response to the stimulus, and the possibility of their wide and easy transfer.

Functions of speech. In the mental life of a person, speech performs a number of functions. First of all, it is a means of communication (communicative function), that is, the transfer of information, and acts as an external speech behavior aimed at contacts with other people. In the communicative function of speech, three sides are distinguished: 1) informational, which is manifested in the transfer of social experience and knowledge; 2) expressive, helping to convey the feelings and attitudes of the speaker to the subject of the message; 3) volitional, aimed at subordinating the listener to the speaker's intention. Being a means of communication, speech also serves as a means of influencing some people on others (assignment, order, persuasion).

Speech also performs the function of generalization and abstraction. This function is due to the fact that the word denotes not only a separate, specific object, but also a whole group of similar objects and is always the bearer of their essential features. Generalizing the perceived phenomenon in a word, we simultaneously abstract from a number of specific signs. So, pronouncing the word "dog", we abstract from all the features of the appearance of a shepherd dog, poodle, bulldog, Doberman and fix in the word that which is common to them.

All of these functions are closely intertwined in a single stream of speech communication.

Language and speech are specific forms of reflection of reality: reflecting, speech denotes objects and phenomena. What is missing in the experience of people cannot be in their language and speech.

Types of speech. The word as an irritant exists in three forms: audible, visible and pronounced. Depending on this, two forms of speech are distinguished - external (loud) and internal (hidden) speech (thinking).
External speech includes several psychologically peculiar types of speech: oral, or colloquial (monologue and dialogic), and written, which a person masters by mastering reading and writing.

It is also customary to distinguish between passive (understood) speech - listening and active (conversational) speech. As a rule, passive speech in both children and adults is much richer than active speech.

The most ancient type of speech is oral dialogical speech. Dialogue is a direct communication between two or more people, which takes the form of a conversation or an exchange of remarks about current events. Dialogic speech is the most simple form speech, firstly, because it is a supported speech: the interlocutor can ask clarifying questions, gives remarks, helps to complete the thought. Secondly, the dialogue is conducted with the emotional and expressive contact of the speakers in the conditions of their mutual perception, when they can also influence each other with gestures, facial expressions, timbre and intonation of the voice.

Monologue speech is a long presentation of a system of thoughts, knowledge by one person. This is always a coherent, contextual speech that meets the requirements of consistency, evidence of presentation and grammatically correct construction of sentences. The forms of monologue speech are a report, a lecture, a speech, a story. Monologue speech necessarily involves contact with the audience, therefore it requires careful preparation. Written speech is a kind of monologue speech, but it is even more developed than oral monologue speech. This is due to the fact that written speech does not imply feedback from the interlocutor and does not have any additional means of influencing him, except for the words themselves, their order and the punctuation marks that organize the sentence. Mastering written speech develops completely new psychophysiological mechanisms of speech. Written speech is perceived by the eye and produced by the hand, while oral speech functions due to auditory-kinesthetic neural connections. A single style of human speech activity is achieved on the basis of complex systems of interanalyzer connections in the cortex. hemispheres brain, coordinated by the activity of the second signaling system.

Written speech opens before a person boundless horizons of familiarization with world culture and is a necessary element of human education.

Inner speech is not a means of communication. This is a special type of speech activity, formed on the basis of external. In inner speech, a thought is formed and exists; it acts as a phase of activity planning. Inner speech is characterized by some features:
it exists as a kinesthetic, auditory or visual image of the word;
it is characterized by fragmentation, fragmentation, situationality;
inner speech is curtailed: most of the members of the sentence are omitted in it, only the words that determine the essence of thought remain. Figuratively speaking, she wears "telegraph style";

The structure of the word also changes in it: in the words of the Russian language, vowels drop out as carrying a smaller semantic load;
she is silent.

In children preschool age a peculiar type of speech is noted - egocentric speech. This is the speech of the child, addressed to himself, which is the transition of external colloquial speech into internal. Such a transition occurs in a child in conditions of problematic activity, when there is a need to comprehend the action being performed and direct it towards achieving a practical goal. A person's speech has many paralinguistic features: intonation, volume, tempo, pause and other characteristics that reflect a person's attitude to what he says, his emotional state at the moment. The paralinguistic components of speech also include bodily movements that accompany a speech statement: gestures, facial expressions, pantomime, as well as features of a person's handwriting.

conclusions

Speech, like any other mental process, is impossible without the active participation of the first signal system. Being, as in thinking, leading and determining, the second signal system works in close interaction with the first. Violation of this interaction leads to the disintegration of both thinking and speech - it turns into a meaningless stream of words.

Since speech is also a means of designation, it performs a significative (sign) function. If the word did not have a denoting function, it could not be understood by other people, that is, speech would lose its communicative function, would cease to be speech. Mutual understanding in the process of communication is based on the unity of the designation of objects and phenomena by the perceiver and the speaker. The significative function distinguishes human speech from animal communication.

people speech different cultures differs even among those who speak the same language. After listening stranger for a certain time, even without seeing him in person, one can judge what are general level his intellectual development and his general culture. Obviously, people belonging to different social groups, speak differently, and therefore speech can also be used to determine the social origin and social belonging of a person.

Methods of animal communication

All animals have to get food, defend themselves, protect the boundaries of the territory, look for marriage partners, take care of their offspring. For a normal life, each individual needs accurate information about everything that surrounds it.

In most groups of animals, all the sense organs are present and functioning simultaneously. However, depending on their anatomical structure and lifestyle, the functional role of different systems is not the same. Sensory systems complement each other well and provide a living organism with complete information about environmental factors. At the same time, in the event of a complete or partial failure of one or even several of them, the remaining systems strengthen and expand their functions, thereby compensating for the lack of information. For example, blind and deaf animals are able to navigate in the environment with the help of smell and touch. It is well known that deaf-mutes easily learn to understand the interlocutor's speech by the movement of his lips, and the blind learn to read with their fingers.
Depending on the degree of development of certain sense organs in animals, different methods of communication can be used during communication. Thus, the interactions of many invertebrates, as well as some vertebrates that lack eyes, are dominated by tactile communication.

Fish use at least three types of communication signals: auditory, visual, and chemical, often in combination.
Although amphibians and reptiles have all the sensory organs characteristic of vertebrates, their forms of communication are relatively simple.
Bird communications reach a high level of development, which is available literally in single species. Communicating with individuals of their own, as well as other species, including mammals and even humans, birds use mainly sound as well as visual signals. Due to the good development of the auditory and vocal apparatus, birds have excellent hearing and are able to make many different sounds. Flocking birds use more varied auditory and visual cues than solitary birds. They have signals that gather a flock, announcing danger, signals "everything is calm" and even calls for a meal.

In the communication of terrestrial mammals, a lot of space is occupied by information about emotional states - fear, anger, pleasure, hunger and pain.

· However, this is far from exhausting the content of communications - even in animals that are not related to primates.

o Animals that wander in groups maintain the integrity of the group and warn each other of danger through visual signals;

o bears, within their territory, peel off the bark on tree trunks or rub against them, thus informing about the size of their body and gender;

o skunks and a number of other animals secrete odorous substances for protection;

o male deer organize ritual tournaments to attract females during the rutting season; wolves express their attitude with an aggressive growl or friendly tail wagging;

o seals on rookeries communicate with the help of calls and special movements;

o An angry bear coughs menacingly.

Communicative signals can be perceived by animals at a sufficiently large distance, while olfactory ones turn out to be quite informative, and in the absence of other individuals in the field of vision or hearing, visual signals can act only at a relatively short distance. A key role in visual communication is played by the postures and body movements with which animals communicate their intentions. In many cases, such postures are supplemented by sound signals. At a relatively large distance, alarm signals can act in the form of flashing white spots: a tail or a spot on the rear of deer, the tails of rabbits, seeing which, representatives of the same species rush to flight without even seeing the very source of danger. Communication using visual signals is especially characteristic of vertebrates, cephalopods and insects, i.e. for animals with well developed eyes. It is interesting to note that color vision is almost universal in all groups, with the exception of most mammals. The bright multicolored coloration of some fish, reptiles, and birds contrasts strikingly with the universal grey, black, and brown coloration of most mammals. Many arthropods have well-developed color vision, yet visual signaling is not very common among them, although color signals are used in courtship displays, such as in butterflies or fiddler crabs.
In vertebrates, visual communication has acquired a particularly important role for the process of communication between individuals. In almost all of their groups, there are many ritualized movements, postures and whole complexes of fixed actions that play the role of key stimuli for the implementation of many forms of instinctive behavior.
Vision plays a significant role in the communication of crabs, lobsters, and other crustaceans. The brightly colored claws of male crabs attract females and at the same time warn rival males to keep their distance. Some types of crabs perform a mating dance, while they swing their large claws in a rhythm characteristic of this species. Many deep sea invertebrates, such as the sea worm Odontosyllis, have rhythmically flashing luminous organs called photophores.

Acoustic communication in its capabilities occupies an intermediate position between optical and chemical. Like visual signals, sounds made by animals are a means of conveying emergency information. Their action is limited by the time of the current activity of the animal transmitting the message. Apparently, it is no coincidence that in very many cases expressive movements in animals are accompanied by corresponding sounds. But, unlike visual, acoustic signals can be transmitted at a distance in the absence of visual, tactile contact between partners. Acoustic signals, like chemical ones, can operate at a great distance or in complete darkness. But at the same time, they are the antipode of chemical signals, since they do not have a long-term effect. Thus, the sound signals of animals are a means of emergency communication for transmitting messages both with direct visual, tactile contact between partners, and in its absence. The transmission range of acoustic information is determined by four main factors: 1) sound intensity; 2) signal frequency; 3) acoustic properties of the medium, through which the message is transmitted and 4) animal's hearing thresholds receiving the signal. Sound signals transmitted over long distances are known from insects, amphibians, birds, and many species of medium to large mammals.
Insects, perhaps the first on land, began to make sounds, usually similar to tapping, clapping, scratching, etc. These noises are not musical, but they are produced by highly specialized organs. The sound signals of insects are affected by the intensity of light, the presence or absence of other insects nearby, and direct contact with them.
One of the most common sounds is stridulation, i.e. chirring caused by rapid vibration or rubbing of one part of the body against another with a certain frequency and in a certain rhythm. Usually this happens according to the principle of "scraper - bow". In this case, one leg (or wing) of the insect, which has 80-90 small teeth along the edge, quickly moves back and forth along the thickened part of the wing or other part of the body. Locusts and grasshoppers use just such a chirring mechanism, while grasshoppers and trumpeters rub their modified forewings against each other.

Insects can produce sounds by banging their heads on a tree or leaves, their abdomens and forelegs on the ground. Some species, such as the deadhead hawk hawk, have true miniature sound chambers and produce sounds by drawing air in and out through membranes in these chambers.

Many insects, especially flies, mosquitoes, and bees, make sounds in flight by the vibration of their wings; some of these sounds are used in communication. Queen bees chirp and hum: the adult queen hums, and the immature queens chirp as they try to get out of their cells.
The statement "mute like a fish" has long been refuted by scientists. Fish make a lot of sounds by tapping their gill covers and with the help of their swim bladder. Each species makes specific sounds. So, for example, the guinea cock cackles and cackles, the horse mackerel barks, the gorbyl drummer fish makes noisy sounds that really resemble drumming, and the sea burbot expressively rumbles and grunts. The sound power of some marine fish is so great that they caused explosions of acoustic mines, which became widespread in the Second World War and, naturally, were intended to destroy enemy ships. Sound signals are used for flocking, as an invitation to breed, for territory defense, and as a way of individual recognition. Fish don't have eardrums and don't hear like humans. The system of thin bones transmits vibrations from the swim bladder to the inner ear. The frequency range that fish perceive is relatively narrow - most do not hear sounds above the top "do" and best perceive sounds below "la" of the third octave.
Among amphibians, only frogs, toads, and tree frogs make loud noises; of the salamanders, some squeak or whistle softly, others have vocal folds and emit soft barks. The sounds made by amphibians can mean a threat, a warning, a call to breed, they can be used as a signal of trouble or as a means of protecting the territory. Some species of frogs croak in groups of three, and a large chorus may consist of several loud-voiced trios.
Some snakes hiss, others crackle, and in Africa and Asia there are snakes that chirp with the help of scales. Since snakes and other reptiles do not have external ear holes, they only feel the vibrations that pass through the soil. So the rattlesnake is unlikely to hear its own crackling.
Unlike snakes, tropical gecko lizards have external ear openings. Geckos click very loudly and make harsh sounds.
In the spring, male alligators roar, calling for females and scaring away other males. Crocodiles make loud alarm sounds when they are frightened, and hiss loudly, threatening a stranger invading their territory. Baby alligators squeak and croak hoarsely to get their mother's attention. The Galápagos giant, or elephant, tortoise makes a low, hoarse roar, and many other tortoises hiss menacingly.

The sounds made by dolphins are described as groans, squeaks, whines, whistles, barks, squeals, meows, creaks, clicks, chirps, grunts, shrill cries, as well as reminiscent of the noise of a motor boat, the creak of rusty hinges, etc. These sounds consist of a continuous series of vibrations at frequencies ranging from 3,000 to over 200,000 hertz. They are produced by blowing air through the nasal passage and two valve-like structures inside the blowhole. Sounds are modified by the increase and decrease in the tension of the nasal valves and by the movement of "tongues" or "plugs" located within the airways and blowhole. The sound produced by dolphins, similar to the creaking of rusty hinges, is "sonar", a kind of echolocation mechanism. By constantly sending these sounds and receiving their reflection from underwater rocks, fish and other objects, dolphins can easily move even in complete darkness and find fish.

Dolphins certainly communicate with each other. When a dolphin emits a short dull whistle followed by a high pitched and melodic whistle, it means a distress signal and other dolphins immediately come to the rescue. The cub always responds to the whistle addressed to him by his mother. When angry, dolphins "bark" and the yapping sound made only by males is believed to attract females.

conclusions

Mammalian communication signals have been developed for communication between individuals of the same species, but often these signals are perceived by individuals of other species that are nearby. This information is obtained through systems and means of communication. Animals receive communication signals and other information about the outside world through the physical senses of sight, hearing and touch, as well as the chemical senses of smell and taste.
Sound propagation is a wave process. The sound source transmits vibrations to the particles of the environment, and they, in turn, to neighboring particles, thus creating a series of alternating compressions and rarefactions with an increase and decrease in air pressure. These motions of particles are graphically depicted as a sequence of waves, the peaks of which correspond to compressions, and the troughs between them correspond to rarefaction. The speed of these waves in a given medium is the speed of sound. The number of waves passing per second through any point in space is called the frequency of sound vibrations. The ear of an animal species perceives sound only in a limited range of frequencies, or wavelengths. Waves with a frequency below 20 Hz are not perceived as sounds, but are felt as vibrations. At the same time, oscillations with a frequency above 20,000 Hz (the so-called ultrasonic) are also inaccessible to the human ear, but are perceived by the ears of a number of animals. Another characteristic of sound waves is the intensity, or loudness, of the sound, which is determined by the distance from the peak or trough of the wave to the midline. Intensity also serves as a measure of the energy of sound.