The most developed, most intelligent monkeys are anthropoids. So the word begs - humanoid. And all because they have a lot in common with our species. ABOUT great apes ah, you can talk a lot, for a long time and with enthusiasm, simply because they are really close to our species. But first things first.

In total, these animals are distinguished by 4 types:

• gorillas,
• orangutans,
• chimp,
• bonobos (or pygmy chimpanzees).

Bonobos and chimpanzees are very similar to each other, but the remaining two species are not at all similar to each other or to chimpanzees. However, all great apes There are many things in common, for example:

• they don't have a tail
• similar structure of the hands of the upper limbs and human hands,
• the volume of the brain is very large (at the same time, its surface is full of furrows and convolutions, and this indicates a high level of intelligence of these animals)
• There are 4 blood types
• bonobo blood is used in medicine to transfuse a person with a suitable blood type.

All these facts speak of the "blood" relationship of these creatures with people.

Both species of gorilla and chimpanzee live in Africa, and this continent, as you know, is considered the cradle of all mankind. The orangutan, according to scientists, our most genetically distant relative among the great apes, lives in Asia.

common chimpanzee

Chimpanzee social life

Chimpanzees live, as a rule, in groups, on average 15-20 individuals. The group, which is headed by one male leader, includes females, males of all ages. Groups of chimpanzees occupy territories that the males themselves protect from intrusions of neighbors.

In places where there is enough food for the comfortable living of the group, chimpanzees are sedentary. However, if there is not enough food for the whole group, then they wander in search of food for quite long distances. It happens that the territories of residence of several groups intersect. In this case, they unite for a while. It is interesting that in all conflicts, the advantage is given to the group that contains more males and which, in this regard, is stronger. Chimpanzees do not create permanent families. This means that any adult male has the right to freely choose his next girlfriend from adult females, both of his own and of the joined group.

After an 8-month gestation period, a female chimpanzee gives birth to one completely helpless cub. Up to a year of life, the female carries the baby on her stomach, after which the baby independently transplants to her back. For a whole 9-9.5 years, the female and the cub are practically inseparable. His mother teaches him everything that she herself can, shows him the world and other members of the group. There are cases when teenagers are sent to their “kindergarten”. there they frolic with their peers under the supervision of several adults, usually females. When the baby is 13 years old, the chimpanzee enters the period of adulthood and begins to be considered independent members of the pack. At the same time, young males begin to join the struggle for leadership,

Chimpanzees are quite aggressive animals.. Conflicts often occur in the group, which develop into even bloody fights, which often end in death. Greater apes can establish relationships with each other through a wide range of facial expressions, gestures and sounds with which they convey their approval. These animals express friendly feelings through sorting out wool from each other.

Chimpanzees get their food on the trees, and on the ground, and there, and there, feeling in their place. Their food includes:

• plant food,
• insects,
• small living creatures.

In addition, hungry chimpanzees as a group can go hunting and capture, for example, a gazelle for joint food.

Skillful hands and a smart head

Chimpanzees are extremely smart, they are able to use tools, and deliberately choosing the most handy tool. They are even able to improve it. For example, to climb into an anthill, a great ape uses a twig: it selects a twig of the right size and optimizes it by breaking off the leaves on it. Or, for example, they use a stick to knock down a high-growing fruit. Or to hit her opponent during a fight.

To break a nut, the monkey puts it on a flat stone specially selected for this purpose, and with another, sharp stone, breaks the shell.

To quench thirst, chimpanzees use big leaf and use it as a scoop. Or he makes a sponge from a pre-chewed leaf, lowers it into a stream and squeezes the water into his mouth.

When hunting, great apes can stone their prey to death, a hail of cobblestones will also await a predator, for example, a leopard, who dares to open a hunt for these animals.

In order not to get wet when crossing a pond, chimpanzees are able to build a bridge out of sticks, and they will use wide leaves as an umbrella, a fly swatter, a fan, and as toilet paper.

Gorilla

Good giants or monsters?

It is easy to imagine the feelings of the person who first saw a gorilla in front of him - a humanoid giant, frightening aliens with menacing cries, beating his chest with his fists, breaking and uprooting young trees. Such encounters with forest monsters gave rise to horror stories and tales of the fiends of hell, whose inhuman strength carries mortal danger if not for the human race, then for his psyche.

Unfortunately, this is not an exaggeration. Such legends that pushed the public to the fact that these humanoid creatures have become too perverted in due time caused an almost uncontrolled, panic extermination of gorillas. The species was threatened with complete extinction, if it were not for the labors and efforts of scientists who took these giants under their protection, about which in those years people knew almost nothing at all.

As it turned out, it seemed these terrible monsters are the most peaceful herbivores who eat only plant foods. Besides they are almost completely non-aggressive, but demonstrate their strength and, moreover, use it only when there is a real danger and if someone comes to their territory.

Moreover, to avoid unnecessary bloodshed, gorillas try to scare off offenders, it doesn’t matter if the other is a male, a ruler of another species, or a person. Then all possible means of intimidation come into play:

• cries,
• pounding your chest with your fists,
• cutting down trees, etc.

Features of the life of a gorilla

Gorillas, like chimpanzees, live in small groups, but their numbers are usually smaller - 5-10 individuals each. Among them is usually the head of the group - an older male, several females with cubs of different ages and 1-2 young males. The leader is easy to recognize: It has a silver-gray coat on its back.

By the age of 14, the male gorilla becomes sexually mature, and instead of black hair, a light stripe appears on his back.

An already mature male is huge: it has a height of 180 cm and sometimes weighs 300 kg. The one who turns out to be the eldest of the silver-backed males becomes the leader of the group. On his powerful shoulders rests the care of all family members.

The main male in the group gives signals to wake up at sunrise, and to sleep at sunset, he chooses the path in the thickets, along which the rest of the group will go in search of food, regulates order and peace in the group. He also protects all of his people from threatening dangers, of which there are a huge number in the rainforest.

The younger generation in the group is raised by their own mothers. However, if the baby is suddenly orphaned, then it is the leader of the pack who takes them under his wing. He will wear them on his back, sleep next to them and make sure that their games are not dangerous.

When protecting orphaned cubs, the leader can even go out to duel with a leopard or even with an armed man.

Often the capture of a baby gorilla entails not only the death of his mother, but also the death of the head of the group. The remaining members of the group, deprived of protection and care, young animals and helpless females are also on the brink of the abyss, if one of the lone males does not take responsibility for the orphaned family.

orangutans

Orangutan: features of life

"Orangutan" is Malay for "forest man". This name refers to large great apes that live in the jungle on the islands of Sumatra and Kalimantan. Orangutans are one of the amazing creatures on earth. They differ in many ways from other great apes.

Orangutans lead an arboreal lifestyle. Although their weight is quite significant, 65-100 kg, they climb trees remarkably even at a height of up to 15-20 m. They prefer not to go down to the ground.

Of course, due to the gravity of the body, they cannot jump from branches to branches, but at the same time they are able to confidently and quickly climb trees.

Almost around the clock, orangutans eat by eating

• fruit,
• foliage,
• bird eggs,
• chicks.

In the evenings, orangutans build their own dwellings., and each - his own, where they settle down for the night. They sleep, holding on to a branch with one of their paws, so as not to break down in a dream.

For every night, orangutans settle in a new place, for which they again build a “bed” for themselves. These animals practically do not form groups, preferring a lonely life or life in pairs (mother - cubs, female - male), although there are times when a pair of adults and several cubs of different ages form practically a family.

The female of these animals gives birth to 1 cub. His mother takes care of him for about 7 years, until he is old enough to live on his own.

Until the age of 3, the orangutan cub feeds only on mother's milk, and only after this period the mother begins to give him solid food. She chews leaves for him, thus making vegetable puree for him.

She prepares the baby for adult life, teach him to climb trees correctly and build a dwelling for himself to sleep. Baby orangutans are very playful and affectionate, and they perceive the whole process of education and training as an entertaining game.

Orangutans are very smart animals. In captivity, they learn to use tools and are even able to make them on their own. But in the conditions of free life, these great apes rarely use their abilities: the incessant search for food does not give them time to develop their natural intelligence.

Bonobo

Bonobo, or pygmy chimpanzee, is our closest relative

Few people know about the existence of our closest relative - bonobos. Although the set of genes in the pygmy chimpanzee matches the set of human genes by as much as 98%! They are also very close to us in the basics of social-emotional behavior.

They live in Central Africa, in the northeast and northwest of the Congo. They never leave the branches of trees, and move very rarely on the ground.

Characteristic features of the behavior of this species - joint hunting. They can wage war among themselves, then the presence of power politics is revealed.

Bonobo lacks sign language so characteristic of other beings. They give each other vocal signals and they are very different from the signals of the second species of chimpanzee.

The voice of the bonobo consists of high, sharp and barking sounds. For hunting, they use various primitive objects: stones, sticks. In captivity, their intellect gets the opportunity to grow and prove themselves. There, in the possession of objects and the invention of new ones, they act as real masters.

Bonobos do not have a leader like other primates. A distinctive and characteristic feature of pygmy chimpanzees is also that at the head of their group or the whole community is a female.

The females stay in groups. They also include cubs and juveniles under 6 years of age. Males keep aloof, but nearby.

Interestingly, almost all aggressive outbursts in bonobos are replaced by elements of mating behavior.

The fact that they are dominated by females was revealed by scientists in an experiment when combined with groups of monkeys of both species. In groups of bonobos, the females are the first to start eating. If the male disagrees, then the females join forces and expel the male. While eating, fights never occur, but at the same time, mating is sure to happen just before eating.

Conclusion

According to many wise books, animals are our smaller brothers. And we can say with confidence that the great apes are our brothers - neighbors.

Modern anthropoid apes - chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans, gibbons - represent forms about 10-15 million years ago that deviated from the line of development common with humans.

Starting from the early Miocene (i.e., from about 22 million years BC), the first group of higher apes, Proconsul, appeared on Earth. This was a whole group of African apes. They were tree and forest dwellers with a unique locomotion system. The group has been around for quite some time. Early forms of these monkeys were probably the ancestors of all modern hominoids.

A number of researchers at the base of the phylogenetic tree going to man put DRIOPITEKOV, which include several species of ancient anthropomorphic monkeys, very close to African higher monkeys, partly to orangutans. At the same time, in some features, individual forms of driopithecus are more similar to humans than any of the living anthropomorphic monkeys. Approximately 15 million years ago, a group of driopithecus species split into two branches - one led to great apes (pongid), and the other to hominids.

The next step (new bunch of shapes) were:

RAMAPITEKI. The remains of the large Ramopitek monkey have been found in various parts of the world: in the foothills of the Himalayas - in India, Southeast Africa, the Middle East and Central Europe. These monkeys were intermediate in tooth structure between humans and modern great apes.

The dating of these finds refers to approximately the same age - 8-14 million years ago.

At this time, the climate of the Earth noticeably changes: in general it becomes a little colder, and in the tropical zone it becomes drier. In place of forests, sparse forests and savannahs began to appear. A new ecological niche has emerged, apparently not yet occupied by anyone. It was at this time that the Ramopithecus "came out of the forest." The immediate reasons for this exit could be either the search for food or the escape from stronger predators. In the open space, a physical restructuring of the monkey was required. The advantage was given to those individuals that could hold out longer on two legs - in a straightened position. In tall grass for looking out for prey and enemies, this position of the body is undoubtedly more advantageous. And some ramopithecus rose to their feet.

Ramapithecus are a large and fairly numerous group of species. At some point, thought to have happened about 10-8 million years ago, few species or populations of one species must have begun to use primitive, unworked tools (such as sticks and stones) on a regular and consistent basis. This caused the emergence of a new bunch of humanoid creatures (Australopithecines).

Australopithecus - the basis of the line that came to HOMO. (from Latin australis - southern, pithecus - monkey). There are 2 to 4 types of australopithecines.

Findings of this creature are noted mainly in South Africa.

The period during which they lived is quite long - 8 million-750-500 thousand years ago.

The size of these animals was quite large - their weight was approximately 20-65 kg, height - 100-150 cm.

They walked on short legs with a straightened body position. The proportions of the torso and limbs have changed. The gluteal muscles were powerfully developed. The position of the occipital foramen was similar to that of a person, which also indicates a straightened position of the body.

In Australopithecus, there is a significant similarity with humans in the structure of the teeth and dental system: the teeth are arranged in the form of a wide arc, like in humans, the fangs are small (unlike all monkeys), which indicates that the functions of attack and defense have passed to the hands .

The mass of the brain was 450 - 550 g, which on average exceeds the mass of the brain of the largest anthropoid orbesian (460 g). In this case, it should be taken into account that the mass of the gorilla is much larger than the mass of the Australopithecus. There was no convexity in the posterior part of the temporal region in Australopithecus, i.e. the structure of the brain is quite primitive.

Australopithecus lived on open spaces savannah During excavations, along with the remains of Australopithecus, bones of small baboons with traces of strong splitting blows are often found. They used sticks, stones and bones of ungulates as a percussion instrument. Perhaps the development of fire has begun.

They used sticks, bones, stones as hunting tools,

Omnivorous, hunting small prey.

Perhaps they were capable of primitive processing of tools.

Several types

Factors of evolution - biological

In general, Australopithecus were closer to humans than modern great apes. This similarity, however, is more expressed in the structure of the dental system and the type of locomotion than in the structure of the brain.

Topic 10. THE APPEARANCE OF THE KIND HOMO

SKILLED MAN

In 1959, on the slope of Ngoro-Ngoro (In Africa), the English anthropologist R. Leakey found bones, along with the remains of one of the Australopithecus, and the following year, the skull of a creature much closer to humans.

3 - 1.7 Ma

The mass of the brain is about 650 g. much higher than that of Australopithecus. The first toe is not laid aside, which indicates that the morphological rearrangements associated with bipedalism have been completed. The terminal phalanges are as short and flat as in humans.

Coarse pebble tools and axes were found together.

Pebble culture

The first kind of MAN

The first dwellings were wind-breaking walls without roofs.

The factor of evolution is biological.

ARCHANTROPS 1 or more species of Homo erectus

Some kind of branch of Australopithecus - Homo Habilis. The ability to produce tools of labor arose and developed, which was closely connected with the further development of the brain. Probably, in the same period there was a wide development of fire. All this gave such advantages that 2 - 2.5 million years ago, the rapid spread of Homo habilis began in Africa, the Mediterranean, and Asia.

Settling, they formed isolated forms - about 10 of them are

to superspecies Homo erectus

Lifestyle: They were distinguished by their developed tool activity.

chopped, hewn on 2 sides,

could butcher slaughtered animals

scrapers, pointed

hunted buffalo, rhinos, deer, rodents (big game hunting appeared)

caves and primitive stone shelters

supported the fire

high infant mortality

must have had primitive speech. Brain mass 750 g

Factors of evolution - natural selection + social

Appearance

Significant features that differ from the human brain, although the mass of the brain is 800-1000 cm.

150-160 cm, there were also larger ones.

Homo Erectus Pithecanthropus - (Java 1 million - 400 thousand)

Sinanthropus (China 450 -300 thousand)

Heidelberg man (Northern Europe 400 thousand)

Atlantrop (Algeria)

Telanthropus (South Africa, most ancient)

By the time of existence, the telanthropus (the most ancient) coincides with the late Australopithecus and Homo habilis. Moreover, it is assumed that the telanthropus successfully hunted both Homo habilis and Australopithecus.

So, 5-3.5 million years ago, the development of one of the Australopithecus branches led to the emergence of HOMO HABILIS, and as a result of the emergence of adaptations of fundamental importance (the development of fire and the production of tools), it subsequently led to a new outbreak of morphogenesis and the creation of a complex of forms HOMO ERECTUS. These progressive forms spread widely throughout the warm zone of Africa, Europe and Asia and evolved in several different directions. The most promising directions were the continued expansion of the brain, the development of a social way of life, the manufacture of tools and the expansion of the use of fire.

Natural biological selection prevailed, associated with a tough intraspecific struggle for existence. After a period of maximum flourishing 600-400 thousand years ago, these forms quickly disappeared, giving rise to a new group of forms, PALEANTHROPS or NEANDERTHALS.

NEANDERTHALS

the immediate ancestors of Homo sapiens.

In more than 400 places in Europe, Africa, Asia and Indonesia, traces of the existence of those who lived 240 - 50 thousand years ago were found.

They occupied an intermediate position between the archanthropes and the fossil forms of Homo sapiens.

Appearance - 155-165 cm

the mass of the brain is 1300-1500, the departments associated with logical thinking are developed. The proportions are close to modern man.

Lifestyle

There are remains of bonfires and bones of large animals at the sites. Tools are more perfect than processed pebbles.

Neanderthals are a heterogeneous group

Findings older in age are more progressive morphologically in skeleton than later forms.

All this can be explained if we assume that one of the progressive branches of the archanthropes quickly supplanted its ancestors. This form broke up into 2 main races.

Late Neanderthals with more primitive brains and more physical power.

Early Neanderthals - a smaller brow ridge, thinner jawbones, a high forehead, and a prominently developed chin. It was they who embarked on the path leading from the horde to society. This evolutionary path led to the emergence of Homo sapiens 50-40 thousand years ago.

Clothing - sewn from skins

built dwellings

got fire

buried the dead

concern for members of society

Factors of evolution: natural selection + social factors

MAN REASONABLE

Two perspectives on origin

1 arose in several places from different ancestral forms

2 monocentrism hypothesis

THE HYPOTHESIS OF WIDE MONOCENTRISM I I I ROGINSKY

Man of the modern type arose somewhere in the east of the Mediterranean and in Asia Minor. It is here that the most complete intermediate forms between Neanderthals and fossil forms of Homo sapiens are found. Numerous intermediate between paleanthropes and non-anthropes are also on SE Europe. In those days there were dense forests. Here, apparently, the last step towards sapiens was made.

The appearance finally approached the appearance of modern man. Significant changes in the structure of the brain, a large development of the frontal lobes and areas associated with the development of speech and complex constructive activity.

After that, a wide resettlement of non-anthropes began on the planet. They mixed with the Neanderthals. Settlement led to a sharp change in the primitive culture of the Neanderthals by a much more developed culture of the Cro-Magnons.

Topic 11

CRO-MAGNON - a man of the modern type.

from 100 thousand years

1600 smz brain

chin protrusion (speech)

no brow ridges

use horn, bone, there is pottery

tribal society

construction of dwellings

art, religion

domesticate animals, grow plants

Factors of evolution - social

Uniting the efforts of individuals and strengthening sociality

Selection directed to the emergence of the ability to put the interests of the tribe above all.

At the heart of the emergence of Homo sapiens as a species are altruistic inclinations that determined the advantage of their owners in the conditions of collective life.

THE MAIN STAGES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN APPROPRIATE HUMAN

Without considering in detail the history of mankind, we emphasize 3 main points in its development

1 Unprecedented spiritual and mental development: Only a reasonable person has reached such an understanding of nature, such a level of self-knowledge (according to the philosophical definition, a person is a matter that knows itself), which made possible the emergence of art.

2 The greatest achievements of evolution were the discoveries that led to the Neolithic revolution

Neolithic revolution - domestication of animals and domestication of plants. These events were the largest on the path of Homo sapiens mastery of the environment.

3 Scientific and technical revolution

The role of labor The main features of man: the development of the central nervous system, the hand as an organ capable of producing various movements inaccessible to the monkey, speech as a means of communication and the very creation of society - all this is the result of the labor process. In itself, the emergence of the human race (Skillful Man) stands out precisely on the basis of labor activity. Not just using a stick, a stone as a tool. But it is precisely the production of various tools that is the line separating man from humanoid ancestors. All further human development is connected with the improvement of the production process.

Topic 12. FEATURES OF THE PRESENT STAGE OF HUMAN EVOLUTION

With the emergence of man as a social being, biological factors evolutions weaken their effect, and social factors acquire a leading role in the development of mankind. However, man himself remains a being living according to biological laws. (Nutrition, reproduction, life span, genetics). Natural selection ceases to be an evolutionary leader factor and remains in the form of a force that performs a certain stabilizing role.

The only evolutionary factor that remains important in human society is the mutation process. . Newly emerging mutations - genetic combinatorics - lead to the maintenance of the uniqueness of each individual. Under conditions of weakening the action of natural selection, the mutation process is a great danger.

Approximately 1 person in 4000 carries a newly emerging albinism mutation, with the same frequency occurs a hemophilia mutation. Newly emerging mutations constantly change the genotypic composition of the population of certain regions, enriching it with new features. Mutations are extremely dangerous in conditions of weakening the action of natural selection. The birth of handicapped children, the general decrease in the viability of individuals carrying harmful, up to semi-lethal genes are real dangers for present stage development of society.

Evolutionary factors practically not involved in the evolutionary process:

Violation of isolation barriers - interrupts the action of isolation as a factor of evolution.

Absence of population waves. Now this is a very rare phenomenon, in contrast to the earlier period of evolution, when epidemics raged that reduced individual populations by several times.

There is only cultural evolution, with virtually no change in the physical form of man.

SOMATIC ANTHRPOLOGY

(MORPHOLOGY OF THE HUMAN)

Topic 13. General tasks of somatic morphology.

In a narrow sense, human morphology is one of the sections of anthropology that studies the patterns of variability in the structure of the human body, its organs and parts, as well as the analysis of the influence of external conditions of life and work on the characteristics of its physical type .. Variability is individual, age, gender, geographic, etc. .d.

As a branch of anthropological science, morphology is not only of independent importance, but is very important for the development of the problem of anthropogenesis and racial science.

It is impossible to correctly illuminate the degree of similarity and differences between the racial types of mankind, to understand the relationship between modern man and his fossil ancestors, to solve the problems of hominin phylogeny without knowing the patterns of individual and age variability in modern man.

In a broader sense, human morphology is the science of the shape and structure of the human body, while considering different levels of organization of its constituent structures (from organismal to subcellular) in connection with their functions and history of development.

Each person is morphologically unique, but certain types can be distinguished among individual variants, that is, generalized variants of variability.

The variability of the body structure is established with various kinds of comparisons: interpopulation, intrapopulation, and individual. Variability is both geographical and historical. In the latter case, the variability of structures depends on the genotypic features that arise during migrations and mixings of the population, as well as on changes in environmental conditions. Often, morphological rearrangements are cyclical, for example, brachyfalization (the skull, as it were, is compressed in the fronto-occipital direction) is replaced by debrachycaphalization, and gracialization (a more refined skeletal structure) is replaced by maturization.

People differ from each other in a variety of aspects, both biological and social. Human genetics is at the very center of the problems of variability, since genes are the material substratum of the heredity of variability. We have not yet reached the highest precision of research that would allow us to compare genes as such, however, we are able to analyze proteins as direct gene products. Behind last years many biochemical variations of beoks, which have a hereditary nature, have been discovered. The inheritance of most traits in humans is still impossible to analyze using the mathematical apparatus of evolutionary genetics. Usually, not one gene, but many genes are involved in the manifestation of these traits, and vice versa, the same gene is responsible for several traits. These features include, in particular, body size and skin color, studied by classical anthropology.

The dimensions and shape of the body are examined using the methods of ANTHROPOMETRY - MEASUREMENTS, characterizing the features of the body and its organs.

Anthropologists, who are mainly interested in the problems of evolution, attach great importance skeletal measurements, but soft tissue measurements, especially body fat, are also important.

In principle, there is nothing easier than making some measurements with a ruler, centimeter or compass, but in order to obtain reliable and comparable results, it is necessary to develop a measurement technique in detail.

Basic anthropometric characteristics.

Body length, torso and limb length, shoulder width, pelvis diameter (Distance between the most lateral points on the iliac crests), bispinal diameter (distance between the anterior superior iliac bones ((ilium - spoon-shaped bone - pelvis))).

Circular measurements: at the level of the chest, abdomen, hips.

Main index (transverse-longitudinal index):

transverse diameter x 100 / longitudinal diameter.

SOMATIC AND FUNCTIONAL ANTHROPOLOGY

Topic 14 . Variety of forms and factors of human variability

"Human Morphology" / Ed. B. A. Nikityuk and V. A. Chtetsov, 1990

“Each person is morphologically unique, since the hereditary program implemented in his ontogenesis is unique, and the environmental conditions that control the implementation of the genotype into the phenotype are also specific. Among morphological individuals, certain types can be distinguished according to the principle of similarity, that is, generalized variants of variability.

The variability of the body structure is established by interpopulation, ionic, intrapopulation, and individual comparisons. It has both geographical (in connection with environmental conditions) and historical conditionality. In the latter case, the variability of structures, especially body size, depends on the genotypic features that arise during migrations and mixing of the population, and on changes in environmental conditions. Often, morphological changes in the body are cyclic in nature, regularly repeating themselves with a certain periodicity. So, the expansion of the human skull (brachycephalization) established by G. F. Debets on the basis of paleoanthrological data has recently been replaced by a return to its original form (debrachycephalization). Perhaps, in a similar way, in a person of the modern type, changes in the massiveness of the skeleton - gracialization and maturization alternated. With a certain cyclicity, the body size of newborns, the age of the onset of menstruation in girls, and some other signs change over time.

Confirmation of wide morphological variability human body is the asymmetry (dissymmetry) of the body structure, the uneven quantitative and qualitative expression of its structures on the right and left. An example would be the location of unpaired organs: the heart, liver, stomach, spleen, and others, shifted away from the median plane of the body. A person is characterized by the predominance of the right upper and left lower limbs - right-handedness and left-footedness.

Topic 15. Biological variability in modern human populations

By Harrison J. and others. "Human Biology". 1979:

“...Here we will consider the variability of modern man as a species. Differences in size and physique, in skin color and other features between the inhabitants of the main continents of the globe are well known and attracted the attention of anthropologists as early as the end of the 18th century; over the past 50 years, immunological and biochemical studies have revealed, in addition to these apparent differences, numerous invisible differences, which have greatly contributed to the study of human populations. Geographical differentiation, although the main one, is not the only theme of this part of the book. It can be expected that in complex communities there are biological differences between economic and other constituent elements. The study of such differences can be important, for example, for medicine.

People differ from each other in many aspects and form very diverse groups scattered throughout the globe. The description of these differences makes sense only if it leads to an understanding of how this regional differentiation is carried out and what is its biological significance in the past and present. Paleontology and archeology provide the most direct and adequate information about the events of the past, and one can hope to create with their help a complete picture of the later phases of human evolution, but so far this information is fragmentary and far from complete. Archaeologists find, as a rule, only bones and teeth, and only rarely any other tissues. Therefore, the development of knowledge in this area is extremely slow and the material obtained is very limited. Archeology also gives us some information about variables of possible biological significance, such as the size of populations, their age and sex structure, climatic conditions and the ways in which people obtained their livelihood.

Genetics is at the very center of evolutionary problems, since genes are the material substratum of the relationship that exists between generations, and phylogenetic changes depend on changes in the properties and frequencies of genes. The accuracy with which we can describe the genotype depends largely on the nature of the traits we have chosen to study. We have not yet reached the highest precision that would allow us to compare the structure of human genes on the basis of chemical analysis; nevertheless, the analysis of proteins as direct products of the action of genes has brought us noticeably closer to this ideal. Over the past two decades, using fairly simple biochemical methods, many hereditary variants of proteins have been discovered.

It is clear that such biochemical traits have a great attraction for those whose goal is to compare populations with precise methods at the level of genes, moreover, using the mathematical apparatus of evolutionary genetics to interpret the results. That is why in this part of the book a lot of space is devoted to biochemical genetics.

In humans, the inheritance of most traits (including intelligence as measured by standard tests, susceptibility to a number of diseases, and many others) cannot yet be analyzed in such precise biochemical terms. Usually, many genes are involved in determining these traits, and environmental conditions affect the variability of traits. These features include the size of the body and flower skin, studied by classical anthropology. This, of course, does not mean that such traits and their variability are not of interest to researchers in human biology, but their significance for evolutionary genetics is limited, since we cannot identify the individual genes in question.<...>(S. 229-230.)

People differ from each other in body structure and in numerous biochemical and physiological characteristics. We will without hesitation refer such variability to the field of biological research carried out by the same methods that are used in the study of living things. But besides, people speak different languages, are subject to different laws, have different customs and beliefs, and vary greatly in the nature and extent of their activities. Undoubtedly, differences of a social nature may be as important for survival as the maintenance of normal physiological functions of the body; this should not be overlooked in an in-depth study of human biology. The extraordinary development of means of communication, technology and forms of social life is inherent only to man. The sheer complexity of the problem requires research in many areas that the animal biologist does not have to deal with, and which are not usually included in the field of biology.

Features of culture are transmitted from generation to generation due to training and living conditions in a certain social environment, and not according to the laws of biological heredity; they can change much faster than traits encoded in the genome and regulated by natural selection. Nevertheless, the ability to master the language or cultural heritage of a society undoubtedly depends on the characteristics of the brain, although we are still very far from understanding the neurological foundations of learning and memory. Genes determine the development and functional activity of brain structures; cases clearly show this mental retardation associated with some mutations. Nevertheless, tissues that develop according to the "instructions" of the genome are not static, but have the ability to respond within certain limits, adapting to changes in the environment; apparently, this provision extends to the higher nervous activity of the organism. The maturation of mental faculties undoubtedly depends on the influence social environment; what a person learns depends on what he is taught, the accumulation of what knowledge is promoted. In analyzing the development of diverse cultures, authoritative researchers study the geographical and historical circumstances, and not the genetically determined variability of the mental abilities that play a role in the development of a culture. If this view is correct, then biology in the generally accepted sense of the word is not capable of providing a major contribution to the study of the cultural-sociological aspect of anthropology.<...>(S. 230-231.)

The marriage system determines the distribution of genes in the next generation. As we noted, in humans, the selection of married couples is limited by social and geographical barriers. In some societies, marriage or sexual intercourse between members of different ethnic groups, such as between "blacks" and "whites", is prohibited by law, while in others there are more or less serious obstacles to marriage between adherents of different religions. Even where law or custom imposes no such restrictions, people often prefer to marry members of their social background and are better able to do so. This behavior hinders the flow of genes between groups. moreover, different societies allow different degrees of kinship between those who are married. Marriages between close relatives increase the likelihood that copies of genes from a common ancestor will fall into the SAME zygote. This affects the homozygosity of the population (albeit to a very small extent) and increases the frequency of rare recessive anomalies. Sociologists pay a great deal of attention to kinship relationships, however, placing the emphasis on the rules prescribed by society, and not on the real genetic consequences. This situation may serve good example divergence of interests and lack of contacts between biologists and sociologists.

It is the problems of natural selection that draw our attention to the causes of differences in mortality and fertility. All densely populated areas of the globe until recently (and still in some developing countries) infectious diseases caused by viruses, bacteria and protozoa were the leading causes of death. Animal experiments have shown that genes influence susceptibility to these diseases; there is reason to believe that this applies to humans. The frequency of this or that disease in a certain area depends both on the characteristics of the climate and on such factors as the size and structure of a given society, the way settlements are located and built, the nature of nutrition, hygiene habits, and many other aspects of life. The choice of habitat and the transformation of the environment under the influence Agriculture can also affect the likelihood of disease and create favorable conditions For reproduction and spread of pathogens. HISTORY knows many examples of the spread of epidemics by armies and pilgrims; The massive deaths of American Indians and Pacific Islanders from infectious diseases introduced by colonial Europeans can serve as a sad example of the shadow sides of contacts between cultures. It is well known that malnutrition, especially in early childhood, dramatically increases mortality from infectious diseases. A large role here is played by the peculiarities of farming, the practice of feeding babies, 192 as well as various kinds of "taboo" in relation to certain types of food.

IN developed countries where diseases of old age are the main causes of death, differences in fertility are likely to represent more opportunities For selection actions than differences in mortality. Although in some countries the main influence on fertility is caused by infectious diseases, in others economic and religious factors that determine the regulation of fertility are more important. A biologist who studies the reproduction of offspring in humans can hardly ignore. complex problems related to cultural and social differences” (pp. 232-233).

Great apes (anthropomorphids, or hominoids) belong to the superfamily of narrow-nosed primates. These, in particular, include two families: hominids and gibbons. The body structure of narrow-nosed primates is similar to that of humans. This similarity between humans and great apes is the main one, allowing them to be assigned to the same taxon.

Evolution

For the first time great apes appeared at the end of the Oligocene in the Old World. This was about thirty million years ago. Among the ancestors of these primates, the most famous are primitive gibbon-like individuals - propliopithecus, from the tropics of Egypt. It was from them that dryopithecus, gibbons and pliopithecus further arose. In the Miocene, there was a sharp increase in the number and diversity of species of the then existing great apes. In that era, there was an active resettlement of driopithecus and other hominoids throughout Europe and Asia. Among the Asian individuals were the predecessors of orangutans. In accordance with the data of molecular biology, man and great apes split into two trunks about 8-6 million years ago.

fossil finds

The oldest known humanoids are considered to be Rukwapithecus, Kamoyapithecus, Morotopithecus, Limnopithecus, Ugandapithecus and Ramapithecus. Some scientists are of the opinion that modern great apes are descendants of parapithecus. But this point of view has insufficient justification due to the scarcity of the remains of the latter. As a relic hominoid, this refers to a mythical creature - Bigfoot.

Description of primates

Great apes have a larger body than monkey-like individuals. Narrow-nosed primates do not have a tail, ischial calluses (only gibbons have small ones), and cheek pouches. characteristic feature Hominoids is the way they move. Instead of moving on all limbs along the branches, they move under the branches mainly on their hands. This method movement is called brachiation. Adaptation to its use provoked some anatomical changes: more flexible and longer arms, a flattened chest in the anterior-posterior direction. All great apes are able to stand up on their hind limbs, while freeing their front ones. All types of hominoids are characterized by a developed facial expression, the ability to think and analyze.

The difference between humans and apes

Narrow-nosed primates have significantly more hair, which covers almost the entire body, with the exception of small areas. Despite the similarity of man and great apes in structure, humans are not so strongly developed and have a much shorter length. At the same time, the legs of narrow-nosed primates are less developed, weaker and shorter. Great apes easily move through the trees. Often individuals swing on branches. During walking, as a rule, all limbs are used. Some individuals prefer the "walking on fists" method of movement. In this case, the body weight is transferred to the fingers, which are gathered into a fist. Differences between humans and great apes are also manifested in the level of intelligence. Despite the fact that narrow-nosed individuals are considered one of the most intelligent primates, their mental inclinations are not as developed as in humans. However, almost everyone has the ability to learn.

Habitat

Great apes inhabit rainforests Asia and Africa. For all existing species Primates are characterized by their habitat and way of life. Chimpanzees, for example, including pygmy ones, live on the ground and in trees. These representatives of primates are common in African forests of almost all types and in open savannahs. However, some species (bonobos, for example) are found only in the humid tropics of the Congo Basin. Subspecies of the gorilla: eastern and western lowland - are more common in humid African forests, and representatives of the mountain species prefer a forest with temperate climate. These primates rarely climb trees due to their massiveness and spend almost all the time on the ground. Gorillas live in groups, with the number of members constantly changing. Orangutans, on the other hand, are usually solitary. They inhabit swampy and humid forests, climb trees perfectly, move from branch to branch somewhat slowly, but quite dexterously. Their arms are very long - reaching to the very ankles.

Speech

Since ancient times, people have sought to establish contact with animals. Many scientists have dealt with the teaching of great apes speech. However, the work did not give the expected results. Primates can only make single sounds that bear little resemblance to words, and the vocabulary as a whole is very limited, especially in comparison with talking parrots. The fact is that narrow-nosed primates lack certain sound-producing elements in the organs corresponding to human ones in the oral cavity. This explains the inability of individuals to develop the skills of pronunciation of modulated sounds. The expression of their emotions is carried out by monkeys in different ways. So, for example, a call to pay attention to them - with the sound "uh", passionate desire is manifested by puffing, a threat or fear - by a piercing, sharp cry. One individual recognizes the mood of another, looks at the expression of emotions, adopting certain manifestations. To transmit any information, facial expressions, gestures, posture act as the main mechanisms. With this in mind, the researchers tried to start talking to the monkeys with the help that deaf people use. Young monkeys quickly learn signs. After a fairly short period, people got the opportunity to talk with animals.

Perception of beauty

The researchers, not without pleasure, noted that the monkeys are very fond of drawing. In this case, the primates will act quite carefully. If you give a monkey paper, a brush and paints, then in the process of depicting something, he will try not to go beyond the edge of the sheet. In addition, animals quite skillfully divide the paper plane into several parts. Many scientists consider the paintings of primates to be strikingly dynamic, rhythmic, full of harmony both in color and in form. More than once it was possible to show the work of animals at art exhibitions. Researchers of primate behavior note that monkeys have an aesthetic sense, although it manifests itself in a rudimentary form. For example, while observing animals living in the wild, they saw how individuals sat at the forest edge during sunset and watched in fascination.

The detachment unites the most developed and progressive mammals. "Primates" in translation means "first", since representatives of the monkey species are one of the most highly organized animals. There are more than 200 species of primates - these are small pygmy marmosets (up to 10 cm in length) and huge gorillas (up to 180 cm in length) weighing about 250 kg.

General characteristics of the Squad

Primates inhabit tropical zones: they prefer to live in dense thickets. Other types of arboreal animals climb trees with sharp claws. But primates use long fingers for this, with which they wrap around a branch.

The fore and hind limbs are five-fingered, the first finger, like in humans, is opposed to the rest. So the animals securely grab onto the branches and hold on to them. There are no claws on the fingers, but flat nails grow. Primates use their limbs not only to move, but also to grab food, clean and comb their hair.

Signs of the detachment of primates:

• binocular vision;
• limbs with five fingers;
• body densely covered with hair;
• nails are developed instead of claws;
• the first finger is opposed to the rest;
• poor development of the sense of smell;
• developed brain.

Evolution

Primates are the oldest group placental mammals. With the help of the remains, it was possible to study their evolution over 90 million years, it was then that the primates were divided into primates and woolly wings.

After 5 million years, two new groups formed: dry-nosed and strep-nosed primates. Then tarsiformes, apes, lemurs appeared.

Global cooling, which occurred 30 million years ago, led to mass extinction primates, representatives remained only in Africa, America and Asia. Then the first true ancestors of modern primates began to appear.

These animals lived in trees and fed on insects. From them came orangutans, gibbons, driopithecus. The latter are an extinct group of primates that evolved into other species: chimpanzees, gorillas, humans.

The opinion of scientists that man descended from driopitenki is based on many similarities in the structure and appearance. bipedalism - main feature who first separated humans from primates in the course of evolution.

Similarities between humans and primates
similarity	Characteristic
Appearance	Large size, long limbs with the same body plan (five-fingered, opposition of the first finger to the rest), similar shape of the outer ear, nose, facial muscles, nail plates
Internal skeleton	12-13 pairs of ribs, similar sections, identical bone structure
Blood	One cell composition, four blood types
Chromosomal set	Number of chromosomes from 46 to 48, similar shape and structure
metabolic processes	Dependence on enzyme systems, hormones, the same mechanisms for the breakdown of nutrients
Diseases	Tuberculosis, diphtheria, measles, poliomyelitis proceed in the same way

sense organs

Among all mammals, monkeys have the most developed brain, with many convolutions in the hemispheres. Hearing and vision are well developed. The eyes simultaneously focus on the object, allowing you to accurately determine the distance, which is very important when jumping on branches.

Monkeys are able to distinguish the shape of surrounding objects and their color, being at a distance, they see ripe fruits and edible insects. Olfactory receptors do not distinguish smells well, and fingers, palms and feet, devoid of hair, are responsible for touch.

Lifestyle

They eat plants and small animals, but still prefer plant foods. Newborn primates are able to see from the first days, but they cannot move independently. The cub clings to the fur of the female, who holds it with one hand and carries it with her.

Lead an active lifestyle during the day. They unite in herds with the leader - the strongest male. Everyone obeys him and follows his instructions, which are sent through facial expressions, gestures, sounds.

habitats

In America, primates with wide nostrils are common ( broad-nosed monkeys), with an elongated tail that easily clings to branches. A well-known representative of the broad-nosed is the spider monkey, which received its name because of its long limbs.

Narrow-nosed primates live in Africa and tropical Asia. The tail, for example, in monkeys, does not play a significant role during climbing, and some species are completely devoid of it. Baboons prefer to live on the ground, moving on all fours.

Squad classification

There are several classifications of the order primates. The modern one distinguishes two suborders: wet-nosed primates and dry-nosed primates.

Characters from the suborder Wet-nosed distinguish them from dry-nosed species. The main difference is a wet nose, which makes it possible to perceive odors better. The first finger is less opposed to the other fingers. Wet-nosed give more prolific offspring - up to several cubs, and dry-nosed mostly bear one child.

The division of primates into two groups is considered older: semi-monkeys (lower primates) and monkeys (higher primates):

1. The semi-monkeys include lemurs and tarsiers, small animals that are active at night. They inhabit the territory of tropical Asia and Africa.
2. Monkeys are highly organized animals, whose representatives include different types marmosets, marmosets, gibbons, as well as great apes.

The great apes include the African gorilla, chimpanzee, and orangutan. Great apes climb trees during the day in search of food, and at night they settle in nests made of boughs. They skillfully and quickly move on their hind limbs, maintaining balance with the help of the back surface of the hand, which rests on the soil. Great apes lack a tail.

Members of the family have a well-developed brain, which determines their behavior. They are endowed with excellent memory and intelligence. Great apes can make a primitive tool out of improvised means. A chimpanzee, using a branch, pulls out insects from narrow gorges, uses straws as toothpicks. Big knots, piles of earth monkeys use as weapons.

Thanks to the developed facial muscles, chimpanzees can communicate by sending mimic signs to each other: they can depict fear, anger, joy. In this respect, great apes are very similar to humans.

For a person as a representative of primates, it is also characteristic: a five-fingered grasping limb, a tactile pattern, differentiation of teeth, a significant development of sensory systems, low fertility, and more. That is why man belongs to the family of great apes. hallmark people is the consciousness that arose in connection with labor activity.

In terms of the degree of attention that journalists paid to the finds of these huge monkeys, Gigantopithecus can perhaps be compared only with the most ancient human predecessors, the remains of which were discovered in East Africa. Gigantopithecus was associated with numerous "sensational" reports of the so-called " Bigfoot” (with which this giant ape has nothing to do) from the Himalayas or other remote areas of Asia. In the 70-80s of this century, interest in Gigantopithecus gradually began to fade, and even fragmentary reports about them disappeared from the mass press. The search for new facts confirming the existence of these primates eventually shifted to the field professional interests paleontologists and paleoanthropologists. However, the idea of ​​giant apes unexpectedly inspired filmmakers who created a series of films about monstrous monster monkeys that have survived to this day in the jungles of the islands of Southeast Asia.

Recent discoveries in paleoprimatology have significantly changed the understanding of the origin and historical development groups of great apes from which Gigantopithecus originated, more accurately defining their family ties with other ancient and modern primates. The study of animals and plants of the era in which Gigantopithecus lived, as well as modern methods of studying their remains, gave a lot of new information about appearance and lifestyle of these giant monkeys. Many hypotheses and assumptions have arisen, sometimes mutually exclusive, but nevertheless existing today.

A unique find from a Chinese pharmacy

All over the world, Chinese pharmacies sell powders that contain crushed fossil bones and teeth of mammals from the Paleogene and Neogene periods. Mistakenly called dragon bones, this drug is highly valued and used in the treatment of rickets and other diseases of the skeleton, gastrointestinal and other diseases. Until now, however, the pharmacological and physiological meaning of this treatment is not known. It is assumed that it is due to the fact that during fossilization (petrification) the bones of ancient mammals, having lost organic matter, accumulate in themselves various elements, in particular trace elements, from the surrounding rocks, acquiring a complex chemical composition, often with various isotopes of rare and radioactive elements.

In 1935, the Dutch paleontologist G. Koenigswald discovered a tooth of some very large extinct primate in one of the pharmacies in Hong Kong, calling it Gigantopithecus ( Gigantopithecus blacki). Later, Koenigswald acquired several more Gigantopithecus teeth from Chinese pharmacies in Hong Kong, Guangzhou, and also in Indonesia. From the teeth found, it was not difficult to estimate the average size of the animal. This three-meter giant weighed more than 350 kg.

In 1937, the anthropologist F. Weidenreich, clearly exaggerating the similarity of human teeth and Gigantopithecus, attributed human features to him and considered these giant apes as direct human ancestors, considering them not anthropoids (humanoid primates), but giant hominids (a family that includes humans and his immediate ancestors). He expressed the original hypothesis of the origin of man from giant apes, believing that Gigantopithecus, having arisen in India, evolved into meganthropes ( Megantropus) who lived in South Asia during the early Pleistocene. Later, according to Weidenreich, meganthropes spread to South China, where they split into two branches. Some of them, having got to Indonesia (Java), turned into a pithecanthropus and later into a man, while others moved to the north of China and evolved into Sinanthropus (the Asian branch of Homo erectus) and further into a modern man. This peculiar hypothesis has been subjected to much criticism. Later studies have shown that the meganthropes, a group of the ancient population of Asia, really belong to the representatives of the genus homo, however, not everything turned out to be so simple with Gigantopithecus - they clearly did not fit into the proposed scheme. Judging by the structure of the teeth and their size, Gigantopithecus were still “specialized” monkeys and could not possibly be the ancestors of people, even ancient ones, but more on that later. We only add that in 1952, when new materials on Gigantopithecus and other fossil apes from Asia were obtained, the discoverer of Gigantopithecus Koenigswald changed his mind and attributed it to a special evolutionary branch of giant apes.

Predator or Vegetarian?

A new stage in the study of Gigantopithecus began in 1956 after the discovery in South China, in the province of Guangxi (Daxin County), in small caves, three almost complete jaws and more than a thousand isolated teeth of Gigantopithecus. Despite the fact that not a single skeletal bone was found (the bones of great apes are very poorly preserved in the fossil state), this find significantly expanded our knowledge. There was a real opportunity to accurately determine the size of Gigantopithecus and compare them with modern large apes.

It is known that Australopithecus has huge molars, but they did not differ in high growth - no more than 1.5 m in height. Therefore, it was believed that Gigantopithecus were no larger than modern gorillas. However, during reconstruction, it must be taken into account that the height of both modern man and his ancestors does not correlate much with the size of the teeth. After the discovery of the jaws in China, the situation became clearer. Based on the size of the largest lower jaw of Gigantopithecus (the height of the horizontal branch is 184 mm, and its width is 104 mm), its height should have been more than 2.5 m. characterized by sexual dimorphism. One large jaw most likely belonged to a young male 14-15 years old, and the other two jaws (very large and smaller) belonged to an adult male and female.

The jaws and teeth of Gigantopithecus lay in layers of yellow sandy-clay calcareous breccia (a type of cave deposits in which loose rocks and stones are cemented with calcite). Chinese paleontologists and geologists who studied the Gigantopithecus Cave (Hedong Cave) came to the conclusion that the relief of its surroundings has not changed much over the past million years. The origin of cave deposits is apparently associated with the alternation of wet and dry seasons, with an increase or decrease in the amount of precipitation penetrating into the cave. The age of Gigantopithecus was determined by the remains of 25 mammalian species found together with them: bears, giant panda, red wolf, hyena, tiger, porcupine, tapir, rhinoceros, horse, chalicotherium, wild pig, deer, buffalo, stegodont elephant, mastodon, orangutan, gibbon and marmoset monkeys. The remains of most of these animals belonging to the pando-stegodont complex are also well known from other localities of southern China and Burma, which have a Middle Pleistocene age of approximately 700-200 thousand years. (A similar fauna of mammals, which during the climatic optimum of the Pliocene was distributed even beyond 52 ° N, was found in Southern Transbaikalia.) However, due to the presence here of the remains of primitive elephants (stegodonts and mastodons), as well as peculiar equids with claw-like phalanges of fingers ( chalicotheres), it can be assumed that Gigantopithecus lived in the Early Pleistocene. An estimate of the antiquity of the Gigantopithecus remains based on the degree of mineralization with fluorapatite gives an approximate date of 600-400 thousand years.

The territory of South China in the early-Middle Pleistocene epoch was a plain intersected by low mountains - a grassy-shrub savannah. Mountains and mountain valleys were covered deciduous forests. The large size of Gigantopithecus, even compared to gorillas, suggested to researchers that these huge monkeys could not feed on plant foods alone. Findings of bones of large mammals along with Gigantopithecus and the apparent similarity of the latter with the ancestors of humans suggested that Gigantopithecus hunted even such large animals as rhinos and elephants. The researchers were not embarrassed by the absence of tools or traces of fire in the Gigantopithecus Cave; Gigantopithecus, endowed with great physical strength, could kill large animals without the use of tools.

Already at this stage of research, paleontologists suggested that in such large animals, which experienced a large daily need for food, the formation of large groups was impossible. Most likely, Gigantopithecus, like modern mountain gorillas, lived in small family groups of five to nine individuals.

Yet Gigantopithecus were predominantly herbivores. In the structure of the teeth and the shape of the lower jaw of these monkeys, it turned out to be quite a lot in common not only with humans, but also with Australopithecus. What Koenigswald drew attention to, substantiating his theory of the origin of man from giant apes. Gigantopithecus has very large premolars and molars, their crowns are high and massive. The length of the crown of the third lower molars of Gigantopithecus is 22 and 22.3 mm, in the gorilla - 18-19.1 mm, and in modern man - 10.7 mm. At the same time, the volume of molars in Gigantopithecus is twice that of a gorilla and almost six times that of a human. In ancient hominids, changes of this kind in the structure of molars indicate adaptation to plant foods. As for the joint occurrence of numerous remains of Gigantopithecus and other large “non-cave” mammals, the remains of elephants, rhinos and other animals present here are most likely the remains of prey of predators (for example, hyenas), which brought parts of corpses and bones to the Gigantopithecus Cave.

Another important morphological feature of the Gigantopithecus dental system is the absence of a gap between the canine and premolars, which do not protrude beyond the level of other teeth. According to these signs, Gigantopithecus is closer to the most ancient ancestors of people than other great apes. The fangs of females are not as massive as those of males. In most primates, the structure and size of canines are closely related to sex, and their formation and growth are controlled by sex hormones. In humans and their ancestors, the fangs of males are larger than those of females, only because males are larger than females, and the effect of sex hormones on their structure is less.

The resemblance to the human lower jaw is expressed in a more parabolic (U-shaped, rather than V-shaped, as in great apes) dental arch, the presence of a single mental foramen on each side of the jaw, the absence of a monkey ledge in the central part of the anterior surface of the jaw, and other features.

However, Gigantopithecus has common features with anthropoid apes, for example, in the structure of the lower jaw: large size, massiveness, strong thickening of the lower edge in the anterior-posterior direction in its anterior (symphyseal) part, thickening in the form of ridges on the lateral surfaces of its branches; and the index of length to width of the alveolar arch is close to that of the orangutan.

Without risking further boring the reader with unnecessary details set forth in the specialized literature, we note that signs of the structure of the teeth and the entire lower jaw of the Gigantopithecus were also found, which distinguish it from other anthropoid apes, from the ancestors of humans and are unique to it. Such duality (intermediateness) in the structure of teeth indicates a unique specialization of Gigantopithecus, unlike other hominids, which partly brings them closer to humans, more precisely, to representatives of the Hominidae family.

"Divine" Monkeys

Until recently, the end of the Miocene and the entire Pliocene period in the history of Gigantopithecus remained a mystery. Although quite numerous finds of great apes who lived in these eras were well known from Northern India by the time of the discovery of Gigantopithecus, they were not at first associated with Gigantopithecus. The peculiarity and gigantism of these primates, as well as the fragmentation of the remains (separate teeth and parts of the jaws) made it difficult for a long time to determine the closest relatives and ancestors that stood at the base of the evolutionary branch that led to Gigantopithecus. Further research and findings in India, Burma and China made it possible to reconstruct the history of these giant primates step by step.

Now no one doubts that Gigantopithecus belong to the hominoid superfamily ( Hominoidea). This superfamily, as established by the American paleontologist J. Simpson in 1945, includes monkeys of the pliopithecidae family (Pliopithecidae) close to gibbons, apes, humans and their common ancestors families of hominids Hominidae). In turn, this family is divided into three subfamilies: hominin ( Homininae) - Australopithecus and people; pongin ( Ponginae) - orangutans and some extinct great apes of Asia; driopitecin ( Driopithecinae) - modern great apes of Africa (chimpanzee, gorilla) and some extinct Miocene apes of Eurasia and Africa. According to modern concepts, Gigantopithecus are included in the Pongin subfamily, although some researchers distinguish them into a separate subfamily or even family.

The time of origin of this group of great apes, the final branch of which was Gigantopithecus, dates back to the Miocene period (about 18-17 million years ago). Pongins, apparently, appeared in Africa and settled first in Europe, and then in Asia. In Africa and Europe, they died out at the end of the Miocene, and in Asia they continued to exist a million years ago, in the early Pleistocene. Most pongins were small or medium-sized monkeys, and only the Gigantopithecus included in it surpassed all known primates with their sizes.

The monkeys of this group are characterized by small incisors and large molars and premolars, a shortened (compared to other great apes) facial region of the skull and a V-shaped (rather than U-shaped) dental arch. One of the morphological features of pongin is thick, folded enamel on the chewing surface. It is clear that the evolution of pongins was associated with a gradual adaptation to life in the savannahs and forest-steppes (certain signs of the skeleton of the upper and lower extremities serve as confirmation of this) and feeding on dry and rough food. At the end of the Miocene period, there was a reduction in the areas of tropical forests, and mainly in those areas where two groups of great apes survived the end of the Miocene lived in conditions of fierce competition - pongins and driopitecins. It is competition that explains the gradual transition of the ancient pongins to ecological niche, atypical for most other great apes.

Drawings of the lower jaws of Gigantopithecus found in South China in the Gigantopithecus Cave (Blekova Gigantopithecus - a, b, e) and in Northern India (Belaspur Gigantopithecus - c).
For comparison, drawings of the jaws of a modern mountain gorilla are shown (female - d, male - f). (Simons E.L., Chopra S.R.K., 1968).

The most ancient representatives of the Pongin group were monkeys of the genus Sivapithecus ( Sivapithecus indicus), named after the Indian deity Shiva. These monkeys appeared in Africa (Northern Kenya) at the very end of the early Miocene. Their descendants were the Sivapithecus of India, where they were common in the Middle and Late Miocene. It was from the Sivalik deposits of Northern India that they were first described in late XIX V. According to the structure of the skull, the Sivapithecus has much in common with the modern orangutan, from which the Sivapithecus differed, perhaps, only in a slightly shorter facial region. Closely set eye sockets, widely diverging zygomatic arches, a significantly concave nasal region of the face, a relatively high facial region - all this makes the skull of the Sivapithecus very similar to the skull of an orangutan.

According to the structure of the foot and hand, the Sivapithecus is close to the chimpanzee. Perhaps he, like modern savannah chimpanzees, moved equally freely through the trees and the ground. Large sivapithecus were the size of a modern orangutan, but there were individuals much smaller, which, apparently, indicates sexual dimorphism in these primates.

Ramapithecus, another representative of Asian pongins, was distributed in Southern Europe, Western Asia. Among several of its species, the Ramapitek Punjabi is best studied ( Ramapithecus pundjabicus). The name of this monkey is given in honor of the Hindu deity - Rama. Ramapithecus in many ways resembled Sivapithecus, which was the basis for combining them into one genus.

Ramapithecus - medium-sized monkeys (about a meter tall and weighing 18-20 kg) - led a predominantly terrestrial lifestyle. Judging by the structure of long bones and vertebrae, they could sometimes straighten up and move for some time on two hind limbs. The skull of the Ramapithecus is even shorter than that of the Sivapithecus, but more concave in the facial region. The front teeth are very small, and the molars, on the contrary, are very large, even larger than those of the Sivapithecus. Due to the large area of ​​the chewing surface of the teeth, the Ramapithecus were better adapted to feeding on a relatively hard plant food, which was dominated by cereal seeds, roots and shoots. The collection of grass seeds required great precision in the movement of the fingers. It is possible that, like modern chimpanzees, the Ramapithecus occasionally used stones and sticks to protect themselves from predators or to get food. The volume of the brain in large representatives of this genus, apparently, reached 350 cm 3 and was almost equal to the brain of modern great apes, however, we recall that Ramapithecus is a small monkey. If the calculations of Ramapithecus brain cavity volume are correct, then the ratio of brain volume to body weight in this primate was two to three times greater than in modern great apes.

Thus, at present, paleontologists have reliable information that in connection with the transition to a terrestrial lifestyle, some Miocene anthropoid apes underwent significant changes in the structure of the dental system and skeleton. These branches apparently evolved in parallel along the path of “humanization”. Most of them developed along the path of further specialization and died out, while others “got on their feet” during the Pliocene, which became of fundamental importance in only one of the groups of African hominids (when gathering food with their forelimbs and further using natural and artificial tools).

The connecting link between the Miocene pongins (Sivapithecus and Ramapithecus) and the Gigantopithecus from the Middle Pleistocene of China was the discovery in the same area of ​​the Sivalik Hills of the lower jaw of Gigantopithecus, whose age, apparently, is about 5 million years. The similarity of morphology and the large size of Gigantopithecus from Belaspur ( Gigantopithecus belaspurensis) directly indicate that Gigantopithecus from China are their descendants.

Dead end branch of evolution

Early-Middle Miocene hominoids with thin tooth enamel, united in a polymorphic group of driopithecus, together with sivapithecus and other extinct Asian pongins (including gigantopithecus), as well as modern gibbons, orangutans, chimpanzees and gorillas, despite significant morphological differences in teeth and different thicknesses, possess enamel, a single type of its microstructure. At the same time, Australopithecus and humans (genus Homo) another type of microstructure. Therefore, the opinion about Ramapithecus and the entire branch of Asian pongins of the Miocene-Pliocene, as possible ancestors of hominids - the predecessors of people, which dominated among anthropologists until the 60-70s of this century, has now changed significantly. Further study of the structure of the skull and teeth also greatly shook the opinion that the Ramapithecus were the ancestors of all later hominids, which clearly represent several independent branches. Studies of the DNA and some proteins of modern great apes have also shown that humans are closer to modern African great apes than to the orangutan. It is most likely that Sivapithecus and Ramapithecus are closely related to modern orangutans, and Gigantopithecus occupy a somewhat isolated position in this group, but most likely are direct descendants of the line coming from Asiatic Sivapithecus.

After the origin and kinship of giant apes from Asia became mostly clear, paleontologists again drew attention to the unusual size of these primates and some details of the structure and wear of the crowns: the dentition of Gigantopithecus is relatively short, with very large, flattened molars with numerous additional tubercles on the chewing surface; the main tubercles of the crowns of the molars are enlarged in size, and additional tubercles are present not only on the molars, but also on the premolars. The shape of the jaws and the small size of the incisors indicate that these monkeys could not pinch and tear off pieces of food with their front teeth, which is typical of modern great apes. The huge height of the lower jaw and the leading edge of the ascending branch protruding forward greatly increase the force of crushing food. The massive symphysis (the area where the two halves of the lower jaw meet) and the lower jaw under the molars indicate the ability of Gigantopithecus to powerful jaw compression. In addition, the posterior part of the horizontal ramus of the lower jaw deviated slightly outward, which, in all likelihood, further increased the force of clenching of the jaws. It can be assumed that Gigantopithecus ate sitting, sorting through food and sending it to his mouth with his hands or bending plant stems to himself, as gorillas do.

An additional confirmation that Gigantopithecus, despite their potential omnivorous nature, were mainly vegetarians, is the fact that their teeth (11.5%) are heavily affected by caries, which could have arisen due to the content in food a large number starch and lack of calcium and phosphorus found in animal foods. In other fossil primates and early humans, caries is rare. It is even believed that ancient people(before the Neanderthals) did not suffer from this disease, which became commonplace only as man evolved and the composition of his food changed. Caries found in massive African australopithecines is an example of typical hypoplasia (enamel destruction associated with a violation of mineral metabolism in the body), which developed in the young of these hominids during the transition from feeding on mother's milk to a plant-based diet, poorer in minerals.

Gigantopithecus tooth enamel showed very characteristic scratches and damages resulting from the use of plant food saturated with silicon. This substance is found in bamboo fiber and grass shoots, which also confirms the hypothesis about the main food specialization of giants.

The habitat of the Gigantopithecus was hilly landscapes with sparse vegetation and copses, where their distant ancestors, the Sivapithecus, moved. The cave in which the remains of these monkeys, as well as other animals, were found was not their home, but rather the place where water currents and predators carried their bones. Moreover, at the time of the existence of giant apes in South China, what is now a cave may have been just a karst depression in a limestone remnant. Animal bones could be washed off the surface of the earth and fall into karst cracks as a result of soil erosion.

In total, the remains of 88 individuals were collected in the caves of South China - 41 males and 47 females. This ratio of males to females is fairly common in large modern primates and has been reliably established, for example, in mountain gorillas. One can also judge the age composition of the dead Gigantopithecus population, in which adult (but not old) animals accounted for approximately 56%, young immature animals - 24%, cubs - 6%, very old individuals - 15%. Such an age composition of dead animals is not typical for a normally existing population of mammals, usually the percentage of death of adults is always less.

What caused the Gigantopithecus to die? According to one hypothesis, the reason for their extinction is competition with ancient people, who during this period were widely settled in Asia. Sure, but not only that. The extinction of such large and apparently highly specialized monkeys was caused by a complex of causes associated with climate change in Asia at the end of the Middle Pleistocene. In the process of evolution, many groups of mammals (ungulates, proboscis, etc.) showed a tendency to a gradual increase in body size, and sometimes to the appearance of gigantism. As a rule, this is due to one-sided adaptation - a passive adaptation to external conditions. Although an increase in body size gives animals biological advantages in competition with other species, in particular in the fight against predators, it often turns out to be one of the main causes of extinction with significant changes in environment. There are many examples of how species, becoming giants, are on the verge of extinction.

The work was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research.
Project 9615-98-0689.

Place of first publication - Journal "Nature", No. 12, 1999, p. 38-48.

Literature:

1. Weidenreich F. Apes, Giants and man. Chicago, 1946.
2. Pei W.C. // Vertebrata Palasiatika. 1957. No. 2. P.65-71; Woo Ju-kang // Scientia Sinica. 1962.V.XI. No. 3. P.391-396.
3. Kalmykov N.P., Mashchenko E.N. Asia's northernmost primate // Nature. 1994. No. 1. S.64-70.
4. Pilgrim G.E. // Rec. Geological Serv. (India). 1915. V.45. No. 1. P.1-74.
5. Lydekker R. // Ibid. 1879. No. 11. P.64-85.
6. Boaz N.T. // New interpretation of Ape and Human ancestry / Eds. R. L. Ciochon, R. S. Corruccini. N.Y.; L., 1983. P.705-720; Cronin J.E. // Ibid. P.115-150.
7. Fossey D. Gorillas in the Mist. M., 1990.