Lowland marshes- these are those swamps that are located in low-lying places: river valleys, on the site of former lakes or in other depressions earth's surface. In such places, groundwater rises very close to the surface. The water and mineral nutrition of the swamps is carried out precisely at their expense. Although they do not neglect other sources of moisture (precipitation, for example).
Lowland swamps are formed, as a rule, as a result of long-term presence of water on areas of the earth's surface. That is, swamping of territories occurs.

Since swamps are fed by groundwater containing a large number of mineral salts, their vegetation is very developed. Both herbaceous plants and shrubs grow here, and trees, mosses, lichens, etc. are also often found. But still, there are plant species that are found more often than others: sedge, green moss, reed, and among trees - willow, alder and birch.
In general, vegetable world lowland swamps are a developed grass cover, giving way in some places to mosses and forest areas.

But there is very little peat in such swamps. Usually the thickness of its layer does not exceed a meter. And this, of course, is not very good, since peat is not only a valuable mineral, but also plays an important role in nature.

Conclusion

Lowland swamps are heavily flooded areas of the earth's surface on which a large number of plants grow, especially herbaceous ones. These swamps are considered the most dangerous in existence, since their surface is extremely unstable and the swamps themselves are changeable.

Types of swamps

A swamp is an area of ​​the earth's surface with excessive moisture and stagnant water regime in which accumulation occurs. organic matter in the form of undecomposed plant remains. Swamps exist in all climate zones and on almost all continents of the Earth. They contain about 11.5 thousand km 3 (or 0.03% - note from biofile.ru) of fresh waters of the hydrosphere. The most swampy continents are South America and Eurasia.

There are highland, lowland and transitional swamps. Based on the predominant vegetation, forest, shrub, grass, and moss swamps are distinguished; According to the microrelief, hummocky, flat and convex swamps are distinguished. Swamp soils are soils that form under conditions of prolonged or constant excess moisture (swamping) under moisture-loving swamp vegetation. Typically, bog soils form in the forest zone of temperate zones. After drainage, crops are grown on the swamp soils and peat is extracted. Swamp soils are common in the Russian Federation, Belarus, Ukraine, Canada, USA, Brazil, Argentina, Indonesia, etc. Swamp soils are divided into peat and peat-gley soils.
Swamp waters are waters contained in swamps. Swamp waters are enriched with natural organic substances. A swamp massif is a part of the earth's surface occupied by a swamp, the boundaries of which represent a closed contour and are drawn along the line of zero depth of the peat deposit. Swamp microlandscape is a part of the swamp massif, homogeneous in the nature of the vegetation cover, surface microrelief and water physical properties active horizon and represented by one plant association, a group of plant associations similar in floristic composition and structure, or a complex of different plant associations, naturally alternating in space.

In their hydrological properties, swamps differ from both reservoirs and dry lands, however, it is impossible to draw a sharp boundary between a swamp and a dry valley, as well as between a swamp and a lake, just as it is impossible to draw a sharp boundary between a middle-aged person and an old man - the transition is carried out gradually. Hydrologically, a swamp is characterized in two ways: it is either a lake, but with bound water, or land, but containing more than 90% water and less than 10% dry matter. This dual nature of swamps arouses interest in them among specialists from many scientific disciplines (swamp scientists, geobotanists, soil scientists, geologists, hydrologists, hydrogeologists, geographers, ecologists, land reclamation specialists, etc.). This basically explains the large number of definitions of the concept “swamp”. The most capacious of them and reflecting the essence of the swamp-forming process is the following: “... a swamp is a growing peat bog.”

Its characteristics:

1) abundant stagnant or low-flow moisture in the upper soil horizons;

2) specific swamp vegetation with a predominance of species adapted to conditions of abundant moisture and lack of oxygen in the soil substrate;

3) the process of peat accumulation and the thickness of the deposited peat is such that the living roots of the bulk of plants do not reach the underlying mineral soil

The bog is considered as a kind of living organism, which, while the process of peat accumulation occurs, grows and develops, increasing in size.

How to visually distinguish peat from ordinary soil?

The process of peat accumulation stops, and the swamp “dies” and turns into a peat bog (peat deposit).

Water exchange processes and physical patterns of water movement in swamps are studied by swamp hydrology. The runoff and evaporation from swamps, the water balance of swamps, and their water-thermal regime are studied. Based on the nature of vegetation, location and nutritional regime, swamps are distinguished into lowland (eutrophic), raised (oligotrophic) and transitional (mesotrophic). Lowland swamps are usually located along river valleys and lake shores; groundwater rich in mineral salts comes close to them; the vegetation on them is usually rich ( different types sedge, broadleaf cattail, common reed, swamp moss, green mosses, gray alder and other species).

Raised bogs on the territory of our country prevail in area and peat reserves over all other types of bogs (40% of all peat bogs in the world). In raised bogs, vegetation is separated from the soil by an already accumulated layer of peat; it receives scant mineral nutrition only from precipitation, and precipitation prevails over evaporation; water is retained and accumulated by sphagnum mosses; groundwater is located close to the surface. The thickness of the peat layer in a raised bog can reach 3–4 m or even more. Typically, as peat accumulates, a low-lying bog gradually turns into a raised bog. At the same time, the peat deposit grows slowly - on average by 1 mm per year.
The peat deposit of bogs is divided into upper (active) and lower (inert) horizons, differing in water-physical properties. The high water conductivity of the active layer determines its special role in all hydrological processes. The share of runoff from raised bogs through the active horizon is up to 99% of the total runoff. It is in this horizon that the processes of moisture and heat exchange with the environment, and primarily with the atmosphere, most actively occur. Therefore, it is so important to study the water-physical properties of this particular horizon. A classification of swamp areas that are homogeneous in structure and genesis has been developed. These bog microlandscapes are homogeneous in the nature of the vegetation cover, surface microrelief, physical properties of the upper horizons of the peat deposit and water regime. By the nature of the vegetation cover, reflecting the habitat conditions of the plants, one can judge their water-mineral nutrition, water level relative to the bog surface and flow, about the thermal regime, which is at the same time a characteristic of the hydrological regime of a given marsh microlandscape.

The water and thermal regimes of marsh microlandscapes correlate well with the meteorological regime even on the dry lands adjacent to them. Therefore, using the data obtained at dry weather stations, it is possible to calculate the level of swamp waters, the temperature of the peat deposit, heat flow, freezing, evaporation and runoff from the swamp. In the Hydrometeorological Service system, stationary observations are carried out at swamp stations and posts located in different swamp zones on natural and drained massifs:

– water levels in intra-marsh lakes;
– the flow of water from streams and rivers flowing into and out of the swamp;
– evaporation from the main marsh microlandscapes and intra-swamp lakes;
– temperature conditions peat deposits;
– freezing and thawing of peat deposits in various bog microlandscapes;
– precipitation and snow cover;
– meteorological regime of the swamp and the adjacent dry land;
– components of the radiation, heat and water balances of the swamp;
– chemical composition swamp waters;
– changes in marsh microlandscapes under the influence of natural processes and anthropogenic impact;
– vibration of the swamp surface.

In all studied massifs, the water-physical properties of the active layer of peat deposits are studied (filtration coefficients, water yield and level rise, capillary properties, dry matter density). Agrometeorological observations and microclimatic surveys are also carried out on swamps drained for agricultural use. The results obtained from studies of vast wetlands based on the landscape-hydrological approach extend to similar microlandscapes of unexplored wetlands, primarily in sparsely populated and inaccessible regions, such as Western Siberia. Materials from studies of the structure and regime of wetlands served as a reliable basis for the hydrological substantiation of projects for the development of oil and gas fields in Western Siberia.

The following types of swamps are also distinguished:

1. Soil and alluvial-soil nutrition, the richest in lime and other ash substances are eutrophic. Due to the fact that swamps of this type usually occur in low-lying relief elements (river valleys, lakeside depressions, ravine-gully networks, etc.), they are usually called lowland.

2. Mixed atmospheric-soil nutrition, depleted in calcium and other ash elements - mesotrophic. Swamps of this type are called transitional.

3. Atmospheric nutrition, the poorest in calcium and other elements of ash plant nutrition are oligotrophic. Since oligotrophic swamps are characterized by a convex surface profile and they lie mostly on elevated elements of the relief, they are called upland swamps.

4. Different types of nutrition, when elevated and low areas naturally combined in swamps are in different conditions water supply: the first - atmospheric and the second - groundwater. Such swamps can be called heterotrophic or complex. These include, for example, aapa-type bogs, which are characterized by a combination of highly moist, flat or concave spaces covered with eutrophic vegetation, with elevated hillocks and ridges occupied by oligotrophic sphagnum mosses and accompanying plants. The same type should also include hummocky peat bogs, widespread in our north, where frozen, dry peat mounds are covered with oligotrophic mosses, lichens and shrubs, and (the depressions between them are usually occupied by very wet lowland or transitional bogs.

Swamp water balance, Lake water balance

For practical purposes, it is now common to divide swamps into three types: lowland, upland and transitional.

The lowland type includes all swamps, the vegetation of which is sufficiently provided by ash substances coming either directly from the mineral bottom of the swamp, or from ground, alluvial and deluvial waters. Raised bogs are swamps in most cases with a convex surface; their vegetation is supplied by atmospheric and sometimes groundwater, which is poor in ash substances. Transitional swamps are formations of an intermediate nature.

When identifying the type of bog, the vegetation cover (an indicator of the current stage of bog development) and the nature of the peat deposit (an indicator of the evolution of bog formation) are taken into account.

Swamps. Types of swamps and their regime

Therefore, when deciding what type of bog to classify, it is necessary to simultaneously study the vegetation cover and structure of the peat deposit with a layer-by-layer characteristic of the properties of peat.

Lowland swamps are located mainly in floodplains of rivers, in flowing lowlands, in places where groundwater pinches out on slopes and terraces, in depressions when lakes are overgrown, etc. The surface of these swamps is almost always flat or even somewhat concave, surface and groundwater flowing into the swamp, wash the entire surface and enrich the soil with lime and other minerals. Key lowland swamps located on slopes where springs emerge may also have a somewhat convex surface.

There are grass, green moss (hypnum) and forest lowland swamps.

Grassy bogs are covered with herbaceous vegetation: sedges, reeds, reed grass, reeds, cattails, horsetails, etc. Depending on the composition of the predominant peat-forming plants, the bogs are given a name (sedge, reed, horsetail-sedge, etc.). These swamps are formed in conditions of rich mineral nutrition of plants. In most cases, peat has a medium to high degree of decomposition.

Hypnum bogs are characterized by the development of hypnum mosses in the ground cover, often together with sedges and other herbaceous plants. They are formed both in conditions of highly mineralized waters (spring swamps) and when the soil is moistened with relatively soft waters (cuckoo flax swamps). In this regard, hypnum bogs differ sharply in ash content and degree of peat decomposition. In most cases, they contain little woody residues (stumps, roots and tree trunks) in the peat deposit.

Forest lowland bogs are usually represented by alder, sedge-willow and sedge-birch bogs. The first group of forest swamps is formed under conditions of rich water-salt nutrition, mainly in zones of pinching out of soil and groundwater. Other groups of the same swamps are confined mainly to the edges of transitional swamps and swampy lowlands washed by less mineralized waters. Forest bog peat has a medium or good degree of decomposition and is almost always heavily contaminated with buried woody debris.

Favorable properties and high content of some nutrients make the soils of drained lowland swamps valuable objects for agricultural use in the non-chernozem zone.

Raised bogs develop on watersheds with atmospheric feeding. They are most common in the taiga zone of the non-chernozem zone; in the forest-tundra and in the zone deciduous forests their share falls sharply.

The peat of raised bogs consists mainly of the remains of sphagnum moss, which affects all the properties and characteristics of the soils of these bogs. Remains of cotton grass, sedges, marsh shrubs, Scheuchzeria, sundews, pine and some other plants are most often found as impurities.

The upper layers of peat in raised bogs are usually weakly decomposed and turn into moss in the very surface layer. They are very poor nutrients and have a pronounced acidic reaction. The low ash content of high-moor peat (2-4%) makes it a good fuel; comb and slightly decomposed sphagnum peat are the best bedding material for livestock.

The characteristics of raised bogs make their agricultural development difficult and less effective compared to other types of bogs.

Currently, these swamps are being developed in cases where near cities and large settlements there are no other, better lands or when they are interspersed with newly developed marshlands, consisting mainly of other, best types swamps - lowland and transitional.

Transitional swamps occupy an intermediate position between lowland and highland ones. These swamps have mixed atmospheric and soil nutrition. Sedges, green mosses, and deciduous trees (willow, birch, etc.) still grow on them, but along with this, sphagnum and its companions appear.

In transitional bogs, peat is deposited only in the surface layers of the deposit. The thickness of these deposits varies - from a few centimeters to a meter or more. The surface of such bogs is usually covered with sphagnum-moss moss of varying thickness (continuous in transitional bogs and discontinuous in complex bogs).

When bogs develop under conditions of depleted mineral nutrition, from the very beginning of their formation, the entire depth of the peat bog can be composed of transitional peats. The surface of such a peat bog is covered with sphagnum-moss moss.

In the transitional type of swamps, groups are distinguished that, in their natural properties, are closer to the lowland or upland types or occupy an intermediate position. The main criterion for this division is the degree of severity of “transition”, characterized by varying thickness of the peat-moss layer on the surface of the bog, the structure of the peat deposit and the properties of the composing peat.

The peat of transitional bogs is deposited under conditions of depleted mineral nutrition, and therefore is characterized by lower ash content, greater poverty in nutrients and increased acidity compared to lowland peat.

Transitional swamps are widespread in the northern half of the non-chernozem zone, where, with proper agricultural technology, they are successfully involved in agricultural use.

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Classmates

Since ancient times, people's imagination has populated swamps with goblins, kikimoras and other evil spirits. And this is understandable: what is good in a swamp? A dead place, useless. However, some swamps are rich in berries, waterfowl, peat... But immediately one remembers swamps, bogs, damp, unhealthy air, clouds of mosquitoes... No, after all, there is little good in a swamp.

This opinion prevailed until man created powerful technology that helped drain vast territories in a short time and extract large quantities of peat. Since that time, mainly in our century, the number and size of swamps began to decrease noticeably. In their place, agricultural lands and engineering structures began to emerge.

But calls for the protection of swamps began to be heard more and more often. It turned out that they play a very important role in the lives of many birds, animals, and plants. Here you can get good harvests of herbs, berries and medicinal plants(cranberries, blueberries, wild rosemary, etc.). Reeds and reeds are used for paper production and construction. Sphagnum mosses are good antiseptics, and they are also used as bedding for livestock. The swamps are home to muskrats and otters, moose and wild boars, ducks and cranes, black grouse and wood grouse. In addition, studies have shown that the air above the swamps is clean and rich in oxygen.

But the main advantage of swamps is that they serve as natural regulators of surface and groundwater flow. In some cases, draining swamps reduces groundwater levels.

Lowland marshes

reduces soil fertility in elevated areas and contributes to severe floods. However, bountiful crop yields can be harvested from drained wetlands. For example, on drained lands in Belarusian Polesie, the same harvests are sometimes harvested as on the famous Ukrainian black soils.

A swamp is an excessively moist area of ​​land with special vegetation and a peat layer of at least 0.3 m (where there is even less peat - wetlands).

Most often, swamps arise where groundwater comes to the surface, as well as in forest clearings and burnt areas: due to the lack of plants that “suck out” groundwater, the groundwater level rises. There are many swamps in the tundra and forest-tundra, where a layer of permafrost prevents surface water from seeping into the ground; in the mouths and floodplains of rivers that are often flooded during floods (floodlands, oxbow lakes, densely overgrown with reeds, cattails, and sedges).

Swamps are divided into lowland, transitional and raised. Lowland ones are not necessarily located in the lowlands, and highland ones are not necessarily located on the hills. The main difference here is what the swamps feed on - lowland swamps, mainly groundwater, highland swamps - precipitation. The waters of lowland swamps are therefore richer in mineral salts than the waters of transitional and, especially, raised swamps. The acidity of the waters of lowland swamps is increased, and that of upland swamps is low. Low-lying swamps can be found in a watershed if the sub-marsh soils are rich in mineral salts. And the upland ones are also found in depressions located among washed quartz sands.

Swamps usually appear in heavily moist depressions or on the site of overgrown lakes and are mostly lowland. As plants die and peat accumulates, the surface of the bog becomes flat and then slightly convex. The vegetation is first represented mainly by herbs, shrubs, and then increasingly abundant sphagnum mosses. The lower part of the turf, located in water depleted of oxygen, decomposes poorly. Peat begins to accumulate. The peat “cushion” grows, the surface of the swamp rises higher and higher, the vegetation cover becomes more diverse: shrubs, trees, and meadow plants appear. A thick layer of peat serves as a sponge that absorbs water. Accumulating moisture, the swamp feeds the plants with plenty of it. Now it can exist without using groundwater, only due to atmospheric precipitation. This is how the transformation of a lowland swamp, the surface of which is concave, like a saucer, into a raised swamp with a convex surface.

The famous Soviet scientist and naturalist M. M. Prishvin called the swamps “the storeroom of the sun.” Swamp vegetation is rich. But every plant is a battery of solar energy. In swamp water, these batteries are stored for a long time and do not “discharge”, forming peat deposits.

Previously, peat was used mainly for heating. It is now considered a very important complex raw material. Resin and mountain wax are extracted from it, medications and substances that purify oil and water; organic fertilizers, feed mixtures, as well as insulating building materials, etc. are prepared on its basis. The “Pantry of the Sun” has stored up many excellent, valuable gifts for people.

Peat bogs are of great scientific importance. Based on the change in swamp vegetation (this is evidenced by plant remains, buried spores and pollen), it is possible to restore the patterns of change natural conditions(climate, groundwater fluctuations) in the area.

Of course, swamps are different from swamps. The vast swampy expanses of Western Siberia or the Arctic must be largely drained, and peat bogs must be developed. The situation is not so simple with the swamps of the European part of the Union. Intensive agriculture, the growth of cities and industrial enterprises, the reduction of forest area - all this makes it necessary to conserve and rationally use soil and surface water. For this purpose, hydrological reserves are set up (for example, in Belarusian Polesie), where swamps are protected - storage tanks and water regulators. In the Ivanovo region, 20 forest swamps have been taken under protection. It is expected in the coming years to significantly increase the number of protected wetlands in our country. Swamps are an interesting object of local history research.

Raised moss bogs are the most in need of protection. They perform particularly important functions in nature: like giant sponges, they retain and regulate moisture; feed streams, rivers, lakes, groundwater, soils; serve as a shelter for many birds and animals; have large reserves of the most valuable berry - cranberries; store some rare or endangered plants, and among them are psilophytes, which have lived on earth for more than 300 million years.

But it's not only that. As practice has shown, on the site of such swamps, after draining, a good harvest is harvested for only a few years, and then the lands become waste and are subject to erosion. That is why the reclamation of swamps requires preliminary serious research and economic calculations.

Swamp - interesting, original and beautiful in its own way natural object. Studying his life and history is a difficult and very exciting task, requiring good knowledge, observation, ability to overcome difficulties and - it is very important to remember this - caution.

Swamp- this is an area of ​​​​the earth's surface that has excessive moisture, high acidity and low soil fertility, which is a consequence of the rise of groundwater to the surface, which, however, does not form a permanent layer of water. The word itself means "dirt". This is true, because swamps are a mixture of soil, water, and semi-decomposed organic matter (mainly of plant origin) located on the surface. The characteristic smell arises precisely because of them. Over time, these substances, by the way, turn into a useful resource - peat.

Reasons for the formation of swamps

Most swamps occur due to natural causes, but some are also caused by humans.

Characteristics of the main types of swamps

In general, the reasons for their formation can be divided into 2 groups: overgrowing of water bodies and waterlogging of the soil.

In the first case, various bodies of water (lakes, ponds, reservoirs) become so overgrown with algae that any significant water exchange in them practically stops, which is why over time they turn into such an incomprehensible mess. This fate awaits many lakes, and it’s no one’s fault, you can’t stop plants from growing.

In the second case, swamps arise, in fact, from scratch. The most common option is when they form in lowlands. And this happens if the area experiences heavy precipitation, a low (or simply insufficient) level of moisture evaporation, and there is also groundwater located quite close to the surface. In this case, the water simply has nowhere to go, and over the years the area turns into a swamp.

Also, these reservoirs can be formed due to the construction of dams or the activity of beavers.

Properties of swamps

The most interesting of the swamp effects is mummification. The fact is that almost all the water in these reservoirs contains a large amount of acids from decomposed plant matter. This greatly slows down the growth of bacteria, and in this case it is they who act as decomposers (process organic substances). As a result, organic bodies that fall into a swamp can remain in such a solution for thousands of years.

Thus, the oldest discovered human mummy is about 2500 years old. And it was preserved surprisingly well.

Another interesting property of swamps is glow. It represents bright lights and glows appearing without any system and flickering here and there. Some of them can be explained simply - these are phosphorescent organisms that live in a given area. Another part of the glow is caused by rotting plants, of which there are a lot in the swamps. And sometimes glows arise due to spontaneous combustion of swamp gas, methane. And these are just the most common reasons glow formation. Although they can be caused by radioactive mineral fallout and other reasons.

Classification of swamps

Depending on the properties by which swamps are compared, different classifications are used. Thus, according to the conditions of water and mineral nutrition, they are divided into 3 types: lowland, upland and transitional. Lowland areas have good water and mineral nutrition because they are located near various sources water: near lakes, in river floodplains, close to groundwater sources, and simply in low places where water flows. Raised bogs have poor water supply, which is based on precipitation. Well, transitional ones are something in between these two types.

Also, the classification of wetlands can be based on the type of vegetation that predominates there. There are only 4 types of swamps: moss, grass, shrub and forest. I think no explanation is required of what each of these swamps is.

Depending on the microrelief of the area, swamps are divided into flat, hilly, convex, and concave. But this is if we consider the shape of the swamps, and if we consider only the terrain, then they can be slope, valley, floodplain, watershed, etc.

But the main interest, of course, is the swamps, which stand out among others. We will tell you about the largest swamps.

The role of swamps in nature

Swamps are the “lungs of the planet”. The benefits they provide are comparable to the benefits of forests. They just have a slightly different effect. Wetlands reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. This happens due to the burial of undecomposed plant (and not only) organic matter, because during its decomposition, carbon dioxide is released in large quantities. But in swamps, this organic matter turns into coal over time.

Oddly enough, swamps are good water filters, as well as orderlies of agrarian (agricultural) ecological systems. They are also valuable natural resources, mined on them. First of all, this is peat, the use of which is very wide. But the plants growing in these places also have great importance. For example, cranberries, blueberries, cloudberries.

Unfortunately, swamps bring not only benefits. Methane, produced here in large quantities, enters the atmosphere, and this is not very good. Methane is classified as a greenhouse gas. That is, to those who caused global warming.

Conclusion

Swamps bring both benefits and harm. However, many things in nature play an equally ambiguous role. And for humans, in fact, this is not very good, since it is difficult to predict how certain actions will affect the balance in nature. So, draining swamps carried out by people can bring a lot of problems in the future, or it can save us, or it won’t have a significant impact at all - time will tell. But if you seriously think about it, it becomes a little uncomfortable how often a person interferes with a well-functioning natural mechanism, relying on luck. Although in this case, there were no special options. The territories obtained from the drainage of swamps are used in agriculture, which is very important.

In addition, not all swamps undergo this procedure. Many of them are left untouched, and some are even declared protected areas. Although this is done, rather, for the sake of preserving rare species animals and plants found there. But still, this gives hope. Man knows how not only to destroy, but also to create, as well as preserve what already exists.

This article will consider one of the common natural formations, which is a waterlogged area of ​​the earth's surface with a layer of peat and peculiar plant forms characteristic only of such areas, adapted to conditions with a lack of oxygen, with weak water flow and with excess moisture.

Will be presented here Various types swamps with their brief characteristics.

general information

There are 3 main signs of swamps:

• Excess and stagnation of water.
• The presence of vegetation specific to swamps.
• Peat formation process.

Wetlands are commonly referred to as areas where plant roots cannot reach mineral soil.

Education

Before we find out what the main types of swamps exist, let's find out how they are formed.

For the formation of such areas, a constant excess of moisture in the soil and on its surface is required, as well as weak water exchange (including with groundwater). In turn, the lack of oxygen caused by excess moisture makes it difficult for air to enter the soil, resulting in insufficient decomposition (or oxidation) of the remains of dying vegetation, and peat is also formed. The latter is a soil substrate with high water content. It consists entirely of decomposed plants. Peat differs in varying degrees of decomposition. For example, a decomposition rate of 70% means that 70 percent of the dead plants have decomposed and 30 percent have not. This type of substrate has excellent water-holding capacity, so it has a fairly high water content (about 97% of the total volume).

According to the forms and conditions of nutrition, lowland (in other words, eutrophic), transitional (mesotrophic) and highland (oligotrophic) are distinguished, respectively, having concave, flat and convex surface shapes.

Lowland (eutrophic) refers to swamps located in depressions, with soil moistened by surface and groundwater, rich in mineral salts. Horses predominantly feed on sediment from the atmosphere, which is not very rich in mineral salts. Transitional swamps belong to the intermediate group.

Based on the vegetation that predominates in the area, forest, grass, shrub and moss types of swamps are distinguished. According to the microrelief - lumpy, flat, convex. Marshes are the most waterlogged areas of swamps.

Swamps of the Russian Federation

We will consider the types of swamps in Russia below. For now - general information.

The area of ​​swamps in Russia is approximately 1.4 million square meters. km (approximately 10% of the area of ​​the entire country). According to rough estimates, they contain about 3,000 cubic meters. m of static natural water reserves.

Swamps are quite complex. They consist of interconnected biotopes, which are characterized by strong moisture, the presence of peculiar moisture-loving vegetation and the accumulation of various organic residues in the form of silt or peat. Under the conditions of different Russian climates, topography, and depending on the underlying rocks, different types of bogs develop, each of which differs in the characteristics of the peat deposit, the conditions of water supply and its runoff, and the characteristics of vegetation.

The following types of nutrition of Russian swamps are distinguished: lowland, upland and transitional.

About the nature of nutrition

By characterizing nutritional conditions we mean the modern surface of the swamp and the presence of that upper layer of substrate where plant roots are located. For each type of swamp, their food sources are presented just above.

Excess moisture is the main symptom of any swamp. It causes the emergence of specific species of animals and vegetation, as well as peculiar special conditions of humification, which in temperate climate usually lead to incomplete decomposition of vegetation residues and the formation of peat.

Geographical distribution of swamps in the Russian Federation

Russian swamps are common in almost all natural areas, but mainly in drainless, excessively moist depressions. Most of them are concentrated in the central regions and on

The most wetlands in Russia are the tundra and taiga zone. The types of swamps here are very diverse. The swampiness in some areas of the tundra is 50%. Approximately 80% of all are concentrated in taiga zones. In the European part of Russia, the most swampy areas are the Vologda, Leningrad regions and the Republic of Karelia (approximately 40%).

The taiga of Western Siberia is swamped up to 70 percent. A huge number of swamps and Far East, mostly in the Amur region.

Distribution of swamps by type

The types of wetlands in Russia are geographically distributed unevenly. Horses occupy half of the total wetland area, and they predominate in the northern regions. Lowland ones make up less than half (about 40%) of the area of ​​all swamps. Very small areas are occupied by transitional type swamps (10%).

Lowland swamps are mostly fed by river or groundwater, and they are found mostly in arid areas. And these are valleys and deltas large rivers. Raised swamps are mainly fed by precipitation, and they are more often found in the taiga and tundra zones of Eurasia. The main part (84%) of peat areas is located in the Asian part of Russia.

What type of swamp predominates in the North? Lowland swamps in western Siberia occupy 42%. Most of the peat lands (about 73%) are confined to the area of ​​territories with permafrost.

Vegetation cover

The following plants predominate in lowland swamps: downy birch, willow, pine and spruce. Among the herbs, sedge is predominantly found here, and among the cereals, reed and reed grass are found. The mosses that grow mainly are green mosses.

Transitional swamps are characterized by birch and pine (in Siberia - Daurian and Siberian larches, cedar), as well as willow (slightly less common than in lowland swamps). Of the herbs, the same vegetation is widespread here as in the lowland swamps, but not in such significant quantities. Most often here you can find alpine downy grass, reed grass, bottle sedge and woolly-fruited sedge. There is also vegetation characteristic of raised bogs.

In the upland swamps one can find pine (in Siberia it is mixed with cedar) and Daurian larch. There are no shrubs here at all, but the heather group predominates in these places: cassandra, heather, wild rosemary, blueberry and cranberry. Cotton grass (a herbaceous plant) also grows abundantly here and common in such places, forming large hummocks-turf. You can often find cloudberries and sundews. Mosses here are represented only by sphagnum.

Thus, by the nature of the peat and the vegetation cover, one can also judge (as noted above) what type of swamp it is.

In conclusion about environmental issues

Behind last years More and more negative processes are emerging in connection with the excessive, destructive exploitation of swamps. First of all, this is pollution, excessive water intake from the ground and massive peat extraction. Also an important role in this was played by drainage and plowing, violation of the hydrological regime during the construction of roads, gas and oil pipelines and other structures.

Drainage of bogs often leads to peat fires, land degradation and loss of biological diversity. All work must be carried out carefully, with the obligatory preservation of most of the wetlands. It is imperative to follow the rules for maintaining ecological balance in nature.

Methods for increasing the biological productivity of agrophytocenoses.

Agrocenosis(from the Greek ἀγρός, read agros - “field”, κοινός, read koinos - “common”) - biogeocenosis created by man ( artificial ecosystem). Has a certain species composition and certain relationships between components environment. Their high productivity is ensured by intensive technology for selecting high-yielding plants and fertilizers.

When creating agrocenoses a person uses a set of agrotechnical techniques: various ways soil cultivation (ploughing, harrowing, disking and others), land reclamation (with excessive soil moisture), sometimes artificial irrigation, sowing (planting) high-yielding plant varieties, fertilizing, control of weeds, pests and plant diseases.

Increasing the productivity of agrocenoses. Agroecosystems are created - planned territories in which, in addition to agrocenoses, high biological diversity is maintained through the alternation of fields, meadows, forests, copses, shelter belts, and reservoirs. Maximum adherence to environmental laws in agricultural practice is necessary.

Swamp(Also swamp, quagmire) - a piece of land (or landscape), characterized by excessive moisture, increased acidity and low fertility soil, exit to the surface of standing or flowing groundwater, but without a permanent layer of water on the surface. A swamp is characterized by the deposition on the soil surface of incompletely decomposed organic matter, which later turns into peat. The peat layer in swamps is at least 30 cm; if less, then these are wetlands. The swamps are integral part hydrosphere. Swamps arise in two main ways: due to waterlogging of the soil or due to overgrowing of water bodies. A prerequisite for the formation of swamps is constant excess moisture. One of the reasons for excess moisture and the formation of a swamp is the peculiarities of the relief - the presence of lowlands where precipitation and groundwater flow; in flat areas there is a lack of drainage - all these conditions lead to the formation of peat.

Lowland (eutrophic)	Transitional (mesotrophic)	Horse (oligotrophic)
a type of swamp with rich water and mineral nutrition, mainly due to groundwater. They are located in floodplains of rivers, along the banks of lakes, in places where springs emerge, in low places. Typical vegetation is alder, birch, sedge, reed, cattail, green mosses.	in terms of the nature of vegetation and moderate mineral nutrition, they are between low-lying and high-moor swamps. The most common trees are birch, pine, and larch. The grasses are the same as in the lowland swamps, but not as abundant; characterized by shrubs; Mosses are found both sphagnum and green.	usually located on flat watersheds, fed only by precipitation, where there are very few minerals, the water in them is sharply acidic, the vegetation is dominated by sphagnum mosses, many shrubs: heather, wild rosemary, cassandra, blueberry, cranberry

The main features of the classification of swamps are the conditions of swamping and the nutritional characteristics of plants. Based on the nutritional characteristics of swamp vegetation, they are divided into: raised, transitional, and lowland swamps.

The most common type of bogs in Russia are raised or oligotrophic, they are found in different zones, from the southern tundra to the forest-steppe. The largest number of raised bogs is concentrated in the taiga zone.

Description

Raised bogs are usually not connected to groundwater; swamping of the territory occurs due to the stagnation of raised waters in the depressions of watersheds, underlain by clay or other waterproof rocks. The existence of the swamp is maintained by water supplied by precipitation. The roots of plants are located in the thickness without reaching the mineral soil. The sources of plant nutrition are dust settling from the atmosphere, as well as decomposing organic residues.

Raised bogs are dominated by sphagnum mosses, the development of which determines the structural features of the bog. Mosses grow most quickly in its middle part, as a result of which a pronounced peak is formed in the swamp, rising 2–8 m above the outskirts. Depending on the characteristics of the location of the peak, they are distinguished:

• gently convex;
• sharply convex swamps.

Raised bogs are characterized by a specific microrelief with depressions and irregular elevations in the form of ridges and hummocks. Depressions are called hollows or lakes depending on the presence of water surface and type plant community, living in depressions.

They absorb about 40% of the carbon dioxide entering the atmosphere and actively form organic matter. Wetlands accumulate significant reserves of fresh water, feeding lakes and rivers that flow from the swamp or are located close to it.
The swamps are a source of peat and a habitat for a number of valuable medicinal plants.

- geologically young formations, they appeared on the planet about 12 thousand years ago. This is indirectly confirmed by the fact that sphagnophilic species of animals and plants, capable of living with a lack of oxygen and poor mineral nutrition, low temperatures and high acidity of the environment are relatively few.

Raised bog plants

Typical sphagnophiles include a number of plants of the heather family: small-fruited cranberries, heather, blueberries, blueberries.

In the raised bogs there are wild rosemary, cassandra, andromeda (podbel), and scheuchzeria. As we move north, the shrubs are replaced by dwarf birch.

Water lilies can live in marsh lakes. Along with sphagnum mosses, cotton grass and marsh sedge are among the typical cenosis-formers of raised bogs.

Some species of lichens and green mosses are found in raised bogs. The swamps are home to unusual representatives of the flora - predatory plants from the sundew and bladderwrack families.

To compensate for the lack of nitrogen, these plants passively hunt small invertebrates: sundews catch insects, bladderworts catch crustaceans.

The vegetation of a swamp serves as an indicator of its passability. Swamp complexes where shrub and cotton grass communities live are passable, while moss swamps are mostly classified as impassable.

Fauna

Species composition The fauna of raised bogs depends on the climatic zone in which the bog is located and the type of bog complex.

Populations of rotifers and sphagnophilous crustaceans develop in swamp reservoirs, and the larval stage also passes life cycle a number of insects: caddis flies, dragonflies, dipterans. Aquatic species of Coleoptera are found in hollows and lakes.

The swamps are home to several species of frogs, snakes and lizards.

Ecologists divide birds found in swamps into two groups:

• Regularly nesting.
• Sporadic breeders, using swamps as a food source during the nesting period or on migration.

The golden plover, gray shrike, curlew, and white partridge nest exclusively on high marshes. Other representatives of the order Charadriiformes also gravitate towards the swamps: curlew, godwit, lapwing. Some representatives of Anseriformes nest in the swamps of the tundra zone. Among those regularly nesting in swamps there are birds that gravitate towards open spaces: meadowchat, skylark, yellow and white wagtail. Some species of regularly nesting birds are associated with trees. These are black grouse, forest pipit, nightjar, and golden eagle.

Irregular nesters include tits, starlings, wood grouse, and orioles. Barn swallows, meadow and marsh harriers, and some species of gulls forage in the swamps.

Large mammals can also be found in the swamps: wild boars, bears, moose.

Problems of wetland protection in Russia

Swamp ecosystems are very vulnerable; they are particularly threatened by economic activity person. Greatest danger present:

• drainage;
• development of peat deposits;
• damage to vegetation during geological exploration using heavy tracked equipment;
• trampling and other damage to vegetation when picking berries and preparing medicinal plant materials;
• damage from fires caused by improper handling of fire. Therefore it is very important

The classification of swamps is based on the nutritional characteristics of plants and the conditions of swamping of territories (Fig.). Based on the peculiarities of plant nutrition, swamps are divided into highland (oligotrophic), lowland (eutrophic), and transitional (mesotrophic).

Rice. Swamp structure different types: a - raised bog; b- lowland swamp; c - swamp formed when the lake became overgrown; 1 - sphagnum peat; 2- sedge and sedge-willow peat; 3 - hypnotic peat; 4- reed peat; 5- floating peat of various compositions; 6-sapropel peat; 7-sapropel; 8-silt; 9- breed; 10- water

Raised bogs form on watersheds and upper terraces of river valleys. They are fed by precipitation, poor in minerals. Such swamps are widespread in the taiga-forest zone; there are fewer of them in the forest-steppe and southern tundra. The vegetation consists mainly of various sphagnum mosses with the participation of cotton grass, cloudberries, marsh sedge, round-leaved sundew, Scheuchzeria, shrubs - whiteberry, cranberry, heather, myrtle, wild rosemary, etc., and the predominant trees are pine and birch. In addition to sphagnum, some types of green mosses (cuckoo flax) and lichens (cladonia) live in raised bogs. The roots of the plants do not come into contact with the mineral soil, but are located in the thickness of the peat. Plants receive their main nutrition from the atmosphere in the form of settling dust, rainwater, and the decomposition of plant and animal remains, as a result of which they have a low ash content.

Plant roots do not come into contact with mineral soil. The surface of raised bogs is convex, with hummocks, ridges, hollows, and lakes. The thickness of peat in the undrained state ranges from 50 cm to 20 m or more, and in the drained state it is at least 30 cm. The peat of raised bogs is slightly decomposed, fibrous, turning from above into moss moss. Its color is light or light brown; it is poor in nutrients and has a pronounced acidic reaction.

Lowland swamps are most often located in river valleys, lake basins, and various small depressions in all zones. They are fed by ground and surface waters containing large amounts of nutrients, so such swamps have high potential fertility. Their surface is flat or slightly concave, covered with herbaceous vegetation (various sedges, common reed, three-leaf reed, reed grass). Among the bushes there are willows, bird cherry, rowan, and among the trees - spruce and pine. The most common mosses are green hypnoaceae and, to a lesser extent, sphagnum mosses. Forest (black alder, etc.) and shrub (willow) bogs are located in the near-terrace parts of floodplains. The peat of lowland bogs is usually dark, highly decomposed, with a significant admixture of mineral particles, and has a slightly acidic, neutral or slightly alkaline reaction. The ash content of lowland peats is high (from 10 to 15...40%).

Transitional swamps occupy an intermediate position between upland and lowland. They are fed by precipitation and ground (secondary) water. Hypnum and sphagnum mosses predominate. The peat reaction is often slightly acidic, and the ash content is average (5... 10%). Deposits of great thickness are rare; more often, layers of low-lying peats lie in the lower part, and high-moor peats on top.

Peat is an organic rock containing no more than 50% minerals. It is formed as a result of the death and incomplete decomposition of plants due to excessive moisture under conditions of anaerobiosis.

Peat soil is the upper biologically active layer (up to 35...70 cm) of a peat bog, in which anaerobic processes are periodically replaced by aerobic processes, and therefore plant residues decompose more actively. The lower boundary of the soil usually coincides with the lower boundary of the root layer and the maximum drop in the groundwater level in the summer season of the year.