International environmental law is a set of norms and principles governing the relations of its subjects in the field of protection environment and rational use of its resources.

The object of interstate relations is the environment as a complex material benefit, the basis of material and non-material benefits derived from it, conditions that guarantee the health and prosperity of present and future generations of people. First of all, those elements on which the existence of mankind depends, and the state of which, in turn, is determined by the behavior of states, are subject to international legal protection. These elements include the World Ocean and its resources, atmospheric air, flora and fauna, unique natural complexes, near-Earth space.

Main sources of international environmental law are international treaty and international custom. At the stage of formation of this industry, customary norms were widely applied. Thus, the principle prohibiting damage to the territory of a neighboring state as a result of the use of one's own territory, which is genetically related to the maxim of Roman law "so use your own so as not to harm someone else", has become widespread. Customary rules have provided the basis for the best-known decisions of international dispute tribunals regarding damage caused by environmental pollution.

Modern international legal regulation of environmental protection is formed mainly as a contractual one. Currently, there are about 500 general, regional, bilateral international agreements that directly affect the problems of environmental protection.

Among the general (universal) treaties are Vienna Convention on the Protection of the Ozone Layer 1985, the Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Means of Influencing the Environment of 1977, the Convention on Biological Diversity of 1992

It is also necessary to mention regional environmental treaties: the 1992 Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea from Pollution, the 1973 Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, the 1976 Convention on the Protection of the Rhine River from Chemical Pollution.

Bilateral treaties most often regulate the joint use of international freshwater basins, marine areas, flora, and fauna. These documents define the agreed principles of activity and rules of behavior of states in relation to the environment in general or its specific objects (for example, agreements on cooperation in environmental protection signed by Russia in 1992 with Finland, Germany, Norway, Denmark; Agreement between the Russian government and the Government of Canada on cooperation in the Arctic and the North in 1992; the Agreement on border rivers between Finland and Sweden in 1971, etc.).

A feature of international environmental law is the prominent role of various declarations, strategies, often called "soft" law. The most important among such documents are the UN Declaration on Environmental Problems of 1992, the Declaration of Rio de Janeiro of 1992, which, while formally not having legally binding force, have a significant impact on the rule-making process.

Resolutions occupy an important place in the general system of norms of international environmental law. international organizations and conferences that pave the way for positive law. As an example: the resolution of the UN General Assembly in 1980 "On the historical responsibility of states for the preservation of the nature of the Earth for present and future generations" and the World Charter for Nature in 1982.

The final completion of the formation of international environmental law as an independent branch of international law would be greatly facilitated by its codification. This issue has been repeatedly put forward in the framework of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). A universal codification act, by analogy with other branches of international law, would make it possible to systematize the principles and norms that have developed in this branch, thereby securing the legal basis for equal rights.

4. State management in the field of environmental protection. Concept, types, functions;

The eponymous chapter is devoted to the fundamentals of management in the field of environmental protection. II Federal Law "On Environmental Protection". The legislator allocates powers: for bodies state power of the Russian Federation, state authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation in the field of relations related to environmental protection, as well as the basics of environmental management carried out by local governments.

Within the jurisdiction of the Russian Federation and the powers of the Russian Federation on subjects of joint jurisdiction of the Russian Federation and the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, federal executive authorities and executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation form a single system of executive power in the Russian Federation (Article 77 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation).

There is also the term "environmental management". There are several types of environmental management: state; departmental; production; public.

Each of the listed types of environmental management is carried out by different entities: the state and its authorized bodies; special departments; business entities; public associations of legal entities and citizens.

State management in the field of environmental protection is expressed in the following functions:

1) establishment of legal norms regulating issues in the field of environmental protection, environmental protection, natural resource legislation, legislation on administrative offenses in the field of environmental protection and nature management, criminal legislation in the field of environmental crimes;

2) adoption of the foundations of state policy in the field of environmental protection, environmental safety;

3) exercising control in the field of environmental protection (state environmental control);

4) setting standards, state standards in the field of environmental protection;

5) state accounting of natural resources and objects, organization of maintaining state cadastres and monitoring of environmental objects;

6) environmental assessment of the state of the environment.

5. Powers of state authorities of the Russian Federation in the field of environmental protection and nature management.

The powers of state authorities of the Russian Federation in the field of relations related to environmental protection include:

ensuring the implementation of the federal policy in the field of environmental development of the Russian Federation;

development and publication of federal laws and other regulatory legal acts in the field of environmental protection and control over their application;

development, approval and implementation of federal programs in the field of environmental development of the Russian Federation;

announcement and establishment legal status and the regime of ecological disaster zones on the territory of the Russian Federation;

coordination and implementation of environmental protection measures in ecological disaster zones;

establishment of the procedure for the implementation of state environmental monitoring (state environmental monitoring), the procedure for organizing and functioning of a unified system of state environmental monitoring (state environmental monitoring), formation state system monitoring the state of the environment and ensuring the functioning of such a system;

determination of the procedure for organizing and implementing federal state environmental supervision;

establishing the procedure for the creation and operation of the state data fund of state environmental monitoring (state environmental monitoring) (hereinafter also referred to as the state data fund), the list of types of information included in it, the procedure and conditions for its presentation, as well as the procedure for exchanging such information;

creation and operation of the state data fund;

establishing the procedure for preparing and distributing the annual state report on the state and protection of the environment;

establishment of federal executive bodies exercising state administration in the field of environmental protection;

ensuring environmental protection, including the marine environment on the continental shelf and in the exclusive economic zone of the Russian Federation;

establishing the procedure for handling radioactive waste, state supervision in the field of ensuring radiation safety;

preparation and dissemination of the annual state report on the state and protection of the environment;

establishment of requirements in the field of environmental protection, development and approval of standards and other normative documents in the field of environmental protection;

approval of the rules for the calculation and collection of fees for negative impact on the environment, exercising control over the correctness of its calculation, completeness and timeliness of its payment and determination of the rates of payment for the negative impact on the environment and coefficients to them;

organizing and conducting state environmental expertise;

interaction with the subjects of the Russian Federation on environmental issues;

establishment of the procedure for restriction, suspension and prohibition of economic and other activities carried out in violation of the legislation in the field of environmental protection, and their implementation;

organization and development of the system of environmental education, the formation of environmental culture;

providing the population with reliable information about the state of the environment;

formation of specially protected natural areas federal significance, formation of the List of objects natural heritage recommended Russian Federation for inclusion in the List world heritage, management of the natural reserve fund, maintenance of the Red Book of the Russian Federation;

maintaining state records of objects that have a negative impact on the environment;

maintaining state records of specially protected natural areas, including natural complexes and objects, as well as natural resources, taking into account their environmental significance;

economic assessment of the impact of economic and other activities on the environment;

economic assessment of natural and natural-anthropogenic objects;

establishing the procedure for licensing certain types of activities in the field of environmental protection and its implementation;

implementation international cooperation Russian Federation in the field of environmental protection;

implementation of federal state environmental supervision in the course of economic and other activities using objects that are under the jurisdiction of the Russian Federation in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation, and objects that have a negative impact on the environment, in accordance with the list of such objects established by the authorized federal executive body ;

establishment for the purposes of state environmental supervision of categories of economic and other activities carried out legal entities, individual entrepreneurs and citizens, based on the criteria and (or) indicators of the negative impact of objects of economic and other activities on the environment, as well as the determination of indicators of high and extremely high chemical and radiation pollution of the environment;

state regulation of circulation of ozone-depleting substances;

exercising other powers provided for by federal laws and other regulatory legal acts of the Russian Federation;

establishing a list of pollutants;

establishment of a list of areas of application of the best available technologies;

establishing the procedure for the development, updating and publication of information and technical reference books on the best available technologies;

establishing the procedure for issuing integrated environmental permits, amending them, re-issuing and revoking them;

establishment of criteria on the basis of which the assignment of objects that have a negative impact on the environment to objects of categories I - IV is carried out.

6. Powers of state authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation in the field of environmental protection and nature management.

The powers of state authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation in the field of relations related to environmental protection include:

participation in determining the main directions of environmental protection on the territory of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation;

participation in the implementation of the federal policy in the field of environmental development of the Russian Federation on the territory of the subject of the Russian Federation;

adoption of laws and other normative legal acts of the subject of the Russian Federation in the field of environmental protection in accordance with federal legislation, as well as control over their implementation;

the right to adopt and implement regional programs in the field of environmental protection;

participation, in accordance with the procedure established by regulatory legal acts of the Russian Federation, in the implementation of state environmental monitoring (state environmental monitoring) with the right to form and ensure the functioning of territorial systems for monitoring the state of the environment on the territory of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation, which are part of a unified system of state environmental monitoring (state environmental monitoring);

implementation of regional state environmental supervision in the implementation of economic and other activities, with the exception of activities using facilities subject to federal state environmental supervision;

approval of the list of officials of state authorities of the constituent entity of the Russian Federation exercising regional state environmental supervision (state inspectors in the field of environmental protection of the constituent entity of the Russian Federation);

establishment of environmental quality standards containing the relevant requirements and norms not lower than the requirements and norms established on federal level;

the right to organize and develop a system of environmental education and the formation of environmental culture on the territory of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation;

applying to the court with a requirement to restrict, suspend and (or) prohibit, in accordance with the established procedure, economic and other activities carried out in violation of the legislation in the field of environmental protection;

bringing claims for compensation for damage to the environment caused as a result of violation of legislation in the field of environmental protection;

maintaining state records of objects that have a negative impact on the environment and are subject to regional state environmental supervision;

maintenance of the Red Book of the subject of the Russian Federation;

the right to form specially protected natural areas of regional significance, management and control in the field of protection and use of such areas;

participation in providing the population with information about the state of the environment in the territory of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation;

the right to organize an economic assessment of the impact on the environment of economic and other activities, the implementation of environmental certification of the territory.

State regulation in the field of environmental protection and nature management: principles, tasks, correlation of civil-law and administrative-legal methods of management.

State regulation of nature management and environmental protection- this is the activity of the competent authorities defined by regulatory legal acts, aimed at preserving natural ecological systems and rational use of natural resources in order to ensure favorable conditions for human life.

TO main tasks state regulation in the field of nature management and environmental protection include: formation and improvement of the regulatory legal framework; the use of economic regulators of nature management (rationing, licensing, etc.); organizing and conducting state environmental expertise; implementation of state control and supervision in the field of environmental protection and nature management; implementation government controlled and state control in the field of organization and functioning of specially protected natural areas of regional significance; maintenance of the Red Book; development and implementation of programs and projects in the field of environmental protection, environmental safety, waste management, air protection; providing the population with information about the state of the environment, environmental education and enlightenment.

The content of the institution of environmental management regulation is characterized by principles :
1. The principle of legality in state regulation of environmental management and environmental protection. State and public organizations, officials, the state and its bodies act on the basis of legality. This requirement also applies to all citizens. The legality in the regulation of environmental use has two main aspects: precise and unswerving observance in the activities of regulation of all regulatory legal acts and making the right decision in the event of a conflict between the applicable legislation.
2. The principle of the priority of environmental protection also implies the presence of two main sides: the requirements for the protection of ecological systems, the decision should be made based on the interests of the preservation of ecological systems and the use of some natural objects should not be harmful to others natural objects and the environment in general.

3. The principle of an integrated (comprehensive) approach in the process of state
management of natural resources and environmental protection is due to the objective law of the unity of nature, the general interconnection of phenomena occurring in nature. It manifests itself in the fact that within the framework of this type of management, all the functions arising from the legislation are implemented, all users of natural resources who are called upon to comply with environmental requirements are in the sphere of public administration, when making administrative decisions, all types of harmful impacts on the state of nature are taken into account, and their records are kept.

4. The principle of planned state regulation environmental management and environmental protection is as follows: the most important measures for the regulation of environmental management are fixed in plans, which, after their approval, become binding, and the results of the implementation of the developed plans and programs should be constantly monitored.

5. The principle of combining state regulation with local self-government is expressed as follows: the maximum involvement of citizens in the regulation of environmental management and the expansion of democratic principles in the regulation of environmental management should be accompanied by the establishment of a clearly defined individual responsibility of each for the entrusted area of ​​work.

6. The principle of separation of economic and operational and control and supervisory functions in the organization of state management of nature management and nature protection as a principle manifests itself in the fact that bodies endowed with control and supervisory functions of management, use and protection of natural resources cannot perform the functions of economic use relevant resources. This principle should be applicable to specially authorized state bodies in the field of nature management and environmental protection.

Principles of delimitation of the subjects of jurisdiction and powers of state authorities of the Russian Federation and state authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation in the field of nature management and environmental protection.

The protection of the environment and the legislation on this activity are assigned to the subject of joint jurisdiction of the Russian Federation and the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. Accordingly, federal laws and the laws of the constituent entities of the Federation should delineate the powers of all subjects of environmental activities, including local governments, and establish the legal foundations for this activity.

The legal ways of delimiting the subjects of jurisdiction and powers between the state authorities of the Russian Federation and the state authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation are constitutional and contractual.

Separation of powers of federal and regional government agencies is carried out in two directions: firstly, through a detailed listing in federal laws and treaties (agreements) of the powers of federal bodies and bodies of subjects of the Russian Federation, and, secondly, through the delineation of powers on a territorial basis.

Most federal laws contain a direct list of subjects of jurisdiction of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, and also establishes that their jurisdiction includes other issues that are not within the jurisdiction of the Russian Federation or federal government bodies ( Art. 6 Law on environmental expertise, Art. 47 LC RF, Art. 66 VK RF). Certain powers in a specific area of ​​public relations in relation to the bodies of the subject of the Russian Federation cannot be established by federal laws due to the fact that the system of such bodies is established by the subject of the Russian Federation independently. The powers of the authorities of the constituent entity of the Russian Federation are "withdrawn" from the list of subjects of jurisdiction.

For a number of years, the delimitation of the powers of federal bodies and state authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation was carried out not only by federal laws, but also by relevant treaties and agreements. The agreement between the state authorities of the Russian Federation and the constituent entities of the Russian Federation specified the subjects of joint jurisdiction, taking into account the characteristics of each constituent entity of the Russian Federation. The agreements contained a number of positive provisions, provided in connection with the need to strengthen environmental protection in the respective region.

At the moment, such contractual practice has been discontinued, and the legislative division of powers between federal and regional authorities prevails.

According to item 2 Article 9 of the Federal Law “On Environmental Protection”, agreements between federal executive authorities and executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation on the transfer of the exercise of part of the powers in the field of relations related to environmental protection, are concluded in accordance with constitution RF and federal laws.

The Constitution of the Russian Federation regulates this issue in p.p. 2 And 3 art. 78, according to which the federal executive authorities, by agreement with the executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, may delegate to them the exercise of part of their powers, if this does not contradict the Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal laws. The executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, in turn, by agreement with the federal executive authorities, may delegate to them the exercise of part of their powers.

Federal executive authorities that have delegated the exercise of part of their powers to the relevant executive bodies of state power of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation by concluding agreements control compliance with the terms of these agreements and are responsible for the improper exercise of part of the delegated powers.

IN federal law dated October 6, 1999 "On the general principles of the organization of legislative (representative) and executive bodies of state power of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation" is also fixed mandatory information, which should be contained in such agreements, are the conditions and procedure for transferring the exercise of part of the powers, including the procedure for their financing, the duration of the agreement, the responsibility of the parties to the agreement, the grounds and procedure for its early termination, and other issues related to the implementation of the provisions of the agreement.

The specific procedure for the preparation and approval of agreements, as well as the procedure for their approval by the Government of Russia, the introduction of amendments and (or) additions to them are enshrined in Rules conclusion and entry into force of agreements between the federal executive authorities and the executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation on the transfer by them to each other of the exercise of part of their powers (approved by Decree Government of the Russian Federation of December 8, 2008 N 924).

Art. 72 of the Constitution (joint jurisdiction of the Russian Federation and the Subjects)

Art. 5 FZ "On the protection of the environment. environment” (powers of state authorities of the Russian Federation in the field of environmental protection)

LECTURE 12

1. The concept, principles of international environmental law and forms of cooperation between states.

2. International legal support of environmental protection.

1. The concept and principles of international environmental law.

1.1. International environmental law- this is a set of international legal principles and norms governing relations regarding the protection of the natural environment, its rational use and reproduction, regulating the cooperation of states and other subjects of international law in order to ensure an ecosystem favorable for human life.

International cooperation in the field of environmental protection began as early as 1913 at the environmental conference in Bern and was continued in 1972 at the UN Stockholm Conference on Environmental Problems. Great importance also had a UN conference on environment and development in Rio de Janeiro (Summit "Planet Earth" in 1992), the World Summit in 2002 in Johannesburg, etc.

Main sources of international environmental law:

1. International treaties:

· Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Oil, 1954;

· Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, 1972;

· Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Principally as Habitat for Waterfowl, 1971;

· 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity;

1992 Climate Change Convention

2. Basic principles of international law.

3. Bilateral agreements between states.

4. Domestic law:

Law of Ukraine "On Environmental Protection";

Law of Ukraine "On the Animal World"

Law of Ukraine “On Ecological Expertise"

Law of Ukraine "On the Protection of Atmospheric Air", etc.

Special principles international environmental law:

1) protecting the environment for the benefit of present and future generations;

2) unavailability of causing transboundary damage;

3) environmentally sound rational use of natural resources;

4) rational planning and management of the Earth's renewable resources for the benefit of present and future generations;

5) long-term planning of environmental activities with an environmental perspective;

6) assessment of the possible consequences of the activities of states within their territory, etc.

1.2. Forms of cooperation between states in environmental protection

There are 2 forms of cooperation between states in environmental protection - normative (contractual) and organizational.

negotiable is to develop and adopt agreements on various environmental issues (the use of natural resources, the protection of the natural environment, the protection of the planetary environment and outer space, the protection of the marine environment, the protection of animals and flora).

Organizational form is implemented in holding international conferences at the interstate level, as well as in the creation and activities of international organizations.

IN 1972 in Stockholm, convened by the decision of the UN General Assembly UN Conference on Problems human environment environments. The main decision of the conference was Declaration of Principles - a kind of set of rules that states and organizations should be guided by in the implementation of their actions, one way or another affecting nature. Another important decision was the recommendation of the General Assembly to establish the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), which was created and actually became an international organization.

The problem of environmental protection is daily dealt with by a large number of permanent structures - international organizations of general and special competence, universal and rational, intergovernmental and non-governmental.

The leading role belongs UN and its main organs, above all General Assembly And Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). Some of the specialized agencies UN:

WHO - World Organization health care;

· IMO - International Maritime Organization;

· FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations;

· ICAO - International Civil Aviation Organization;

· UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization;

IAEA - International Atomic Energy Agency, etc.

Among non-governmental organizations plays a special role International

Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources(IUCN).

On regional level play an important role:

· OSCE - Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe;

EU - European Union;

Northern Council, etc.

IN within the CIS created: Interstate Ecological Council (MES) and Interstate Ecological Fund.

International cooperation in the field of environmental protection Ukraine performs at three levels: world (global); European (EU and Eastern Europe), regional (CIS, EECCA ( of Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia). Ukraine has signed bilateral intergovernmental agreements (memorandums) on cooperation in the field of environmental protection with a number of states (Belarus, Russia, Georgia, USA, Germany), and agreements concluded within the USSR (Japan, France) remain valid.

The objects of international legal protection are:

Earth's atmosphere, near-Earth and outer space;

· World Ocean;

animal and plant world;

· Protection of the environment from contamination by radioactive waste.

The concept of international environmental law

International environmental law is a set of principles and norms of international law that regulate the relations of its subjects in the field of environmental protection and the rational use of its resources . IN domestic literature more common name "international law environment"Term "environmental law"It seems preferable only because of its international use. S. V. Vinogradov, O. S. Kolbasov, A. S. Timoshenko, V. A. Chichvarin are known for research in this area.

In our time, international environmental protection comes to the fore. The consequences of insufficient attention to the problem can be catastrophic. It is not only about the well-being of mankind, but about its survival. It is especially alarming that the degradation of the natural environment may be irreversible. Pollution of the world's oceans is detrimental to human health and fish stocks. Interregional projects for the construction of dams, dams, canals, drainage of swamps lead to the degradation of world agricultural lands, drought and soil erosion in many countries of the world. Hence malnutrition, hunger, disease. Air pollution is causing more and more significant damage to the health of people on our planet. The mass destruction of forests adversely affects the planet's climate and reduces biodiversity, the gene pool. A serious threat to health is the depletion of the ozone layer, which protects against harmful solar radiation. Leads to catastrophic changes in the Earth's climate " Greenhouse effect", i.e. global warming as a result of growing emissions of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Irrational use of mineral and living resources leads to their depletion, which again poses a problem for the survival of mankind. Finally, accidents at enterprises associated with emissions radioactive and toxic substances into the atmosphere, not to mention the testing of nuclear weapons, cause enormous damage to human health and nature.Suffice it to recall the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant and at the American chemical plant in India. as evidenced by the experience of the wars in Vietnam, Kampuchea, Yugoslavia, the Persian Gulf, in particular, the war in Iraq.

The position of states in relation to international environmental protection is different. In developing countries, environmental problems can call into question the success of the development process, and there are no funds to change the situation. In the most developed countries existing system consumption leads to such a depletion of resources not only of their own, but also of other countries, which poses a threat to future development throughout the world. This shows that international environmental protection concerns all aspects of the development of society and is vital for all countries, regardless of their level of development. Therefore, such protection should become an element of the international policy of any state. Since the national parts of the environment form a single global system, so protecting it should become one of the main goals of international cooperation and an integral element of the concept of international security. In a resolution of 1991, the UN General Assembly indicated the importance of peace for the protection of nature and noted the inverse relationship - the conservation of nature contributes to the strengthening of peace, ensuring the proper use of natural resources.

All of the above stimulates the dynamic development of international environmental law. Noteworthy is the peculiarity of this development, which consists in the large role of the public and the media. Many international acts in the field of international environmental protection are adopted by governments. Mass movements in defense of nature, various parties of "green" become more and more influential.

The position of governments is explained by differences in interests. International environmental protection is very costly. It negatively affects the competitiveness of goods. Activities on their territory do not prevent transboundary pollution. For example, Russian factories on the Kola Peninsula are damaging the Norwegian environment. In 1996, Russia entered into an agreement for Norway to finance the installation of filters at a metallurgical plant on the Kola Peninsula. In general, an international problem can only be solved on a global scale, and this requires colossal funds.

International environmental law began to take shape as customary law, first of all, it concerns its norms and principles. This is how the basic principle of international environmental law was established - the principle of not harming the nature of another state by actions performed on its own territory . The most common principle -- the principle of environmental protection . There is a formation the principle of responsibility for causing harm to the nature of another state . I will especially note cardinal principle , which was formulated in the Declaration of the UN Conference on the Human Environment of 1972 as follows: "Man has the fundamental right to freedom, equality and proper conditions of life, to an environment of such a quality that it makes it possible to live with dignity and well-being."

International environmental law is closely connected not only with human rights, but also with other branches of international law. It should be emphasized that environmental protection is the principle also of maritime and space law . Considerable attention is paid to the protection of workers from a polluted environment by the International Labor Organization; for example, in 1977 it adopted the Convention for the Protection of Workers from Occupational Hazards from Air Pollution, Noise and Vibration.

In the general process of formation of customary norms of international environmental law, an important role belongs to the resolutions of international organizations and conferences that pave the way for positive law. As an example, I will point to such acts of the UN General Assembly as the 1980 resolution. "On the historical responsibility of states for the conservation of the nature of the Earth for present and future generations" and the World Charter for Nature 1982

Treaties are an important source of international environmental law.. Behind last years adopted a whole range of universal conventions in this area, which give an idea about the subject of this branch of international law. First of all, this Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Interference with the Environment of 1977, as well as the Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer of 1985, the Convention for the Protection of Migratory Species of Wild Animals of 1979, the Convention on International Trade in Species wildlife Endangered Flora, 1973, UNESCO Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, 1972

The leading role in the development of international environmental law belongs to international organizations. A special place is occupied by the UN. The principle resolutions of the General Assembly have already been noted earlier. The Economic and Social Council is constantly dealing with environmental issues, an important role belongs to other organizations of the UN system, as well as its regional commissions. In their field, they are engaged in the development of norms and principles for the protection of the environment United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), UNESCO, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), World Health Organization (WHO), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Exists special program UN Environment (UNEP ), which is practically an international organization, although legally it is a subsidiary body created by a resolution of the General Assembly. UNEP has a primary role in promoting the development of international environmental law. Within its framework, the foundations of this right are being developed, the preparation of conventions is being initiated.

Regional organizations play a significant role. Environmental protection is one of the main tasks OSCE. Within its framework, a number of convention acts and a number of decisions in this area have been adopted.

Cooperation within the CIS is called upon to play a significant role in protecting the environment. This task is set by the CIS Charter and confirmed by many other acts. The 1996 agreement between Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Russia obliges to increase "cooperation in the field of environmental protection, including the development and adoption of unified environmental safety standards" . The parties "take joint measures to prevent and eliminate the consequences of accidents, natural disasters, nuclear and environmental catastrophes" (Article 9). The above provisions give an idea of ​​how the principle of environmental protection is understood in the mutual relations of the CIS countries.

To implement the principle in 1992, the CIS countries concluded Agreement on cooperation in the field of ecology and environmental protection. On the basis of the Agreement, the Interstate Ecological Council was established, and under it the Interstate Ecological Fund. The task of the Council is to coordinate the cooperation of states in the field of nature protection, to prepare the relevant normative acts. The Fund is intended to finance interstate programs, assistance in liquidation of emergency environmental situations, as well as project and research work in the field of environmental protection.

Protection of various types of environment

Maritime Wednesday one of the first to be protected. The relevant provisions are contained in the general conventions on the law of the sea. Particular attention is paid to the fight against oil pollution. The first environmental universal convention is devoted to this problem - London Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Oil, 1954 She banned the discharge of oil and oil-water mixture from ships: After a series of accidents with tankers, new conventions are being adopted. Brussels Convention on Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Accidents, 1969 ., granted the coastal states very broad powers, up to the right to destroy the ship and cargo in the event of a threat of serious pollution of the coast and coastal waters. The Convention has paved the way for the fight against marine pollution and other substances in similar cases (Protocol 1973).

Naturally, the question arose of compensation for the damage caused by oil pollution. It refers to Brussels Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, 1969 She established the absolute, that is, not dependent on fault, liability of shipowners, at the same time limited its size, however, by a rather high ceiling. Combating the consequences of oil pollution requires joint action by states. The organization of such actions is dedicated Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Control and Cooperation 1990

The prohibition of all operational discharges from ships is contained in Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973 Dedicated to the burial of environmentally harmful substances in the sea Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, 1972

Agreements have also been signed at the regional level. So, Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea from Pollution 1992 deals with issues of land-based sources of pollution, disposal, and cooperation in the fight against pollution by oil and other harmful substances in emergency conditions.

The Baltic Sea also occupies a special position. It was categorized as a "special area" Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Ships, 1973 These areas are subject to increased pollution prevention requirements. In 1974, the Baltic countries concluded Helsinki Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area . Its peculiarity lies in the prohibition of pollution of the sea from land. The Commission for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea was established on the basis of the Convention. However, it soon became clear that the provisions of the Convention were insufficient, and in 1992 a new Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea was adopted, which established more stringent requirements. I will especially note that its action extends to a certain part of inland waters, the limits of such distribution are determined by each state.

Waters of rivers and lakes have such significant differences that the development of a common convention was impossible. Even prepared by the Council of Europe in 1974 regional convention failed to garner the required number of ratifications. Separate provisions on the prevention of river pollution are contained in agreements on other issues. The mentioned Convention on the Baltic Sea also affects the rivers flowing into it. But in most cases, issues of protection are resolved by agreements of the coastal states, however, so far unsatisfactorily. As a positive example, one can refer to the norms and organizational forms for the protection of the waters of the Rhine. In 1963 was signed Berne Convention for the Protection of the Rhine from Pollution. For its implementation, a Commission was established, which prepared in 1976 Convention for the Protection of the Rhine Against Chemical Pollution and another for protection against chlorides.

In connection with the growing consumption of fresh water and the limited nature of its resources, the issue of protecting freshwater basins is of paramount importance. As a result, new aspects of international environmental law are emerging. Responding to the demands of life, the UN International Law Commission prepared and submitted to the General Assembly draft articles on the right of the non-navigational use of international watercourses.

A watercourse is understood as a system of not only surface, but also groundwater, forming a single whole and usually flowing to one exit. International watercourses are watercourses, parts of which are located in different states. The regime of such watercourses is determined by the agreement of the states with whose territory they are connected. Each such state has the right to participate in the agreement.

States are obliged to use watercourses in such a way as to provide them with the necessary protection. They are obliged to participate in the protection of watercourses on an equitable basis, to cooperate to achieve this goal.

Air environment , as already noted, is the common property of mankind. Despite this, its protection is not reflected in any way in international environmental law. The issue is being resolved at the bilateral and regional levels. Perhaps the only significant step in this area is the training within the framework of the OSCE Convention on Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution 1979, subsequently supplemented by a number of protocols. Particular attention is paid to the reduction of sulfur emissions into the atmosphere, which generate acid rain, which are transported over long distances and harm all living things on the planet.

An important direction in the protection of nature is cooperation in countering the growth of the greenhouse effect, i.e. global warming as a result of saturation of the atmosphere with carbon dioxide, the main source of which is motor transport. The consequences of this effect may turn out to be catastrophic in the coming decades. On the one hand, new vast deserts will appear, and on the other hand, the rise in sea level will lead to the flooding of large spaces developed by man. In 1992 was adopted United Nations Framework Convention about climate change. She defined general provisions and main areas of cooperation. A common responsibility of states is established, but differences in economic potential must be taken into account. Particular attention should be paid to the interests of developing countries, which are most vulnerable to negative climate change, and on the other hand, have the least ability to counteract this.

Ozone layer protects the Earth from the harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. Under the influence of human activities, it was significantly depleted, over some areas appeared "ozone holes". In 1985 was adopted Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer. It is about monitoring his condition and cooperating to protect him. In 1987 appeared Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. Restrictions have been placed on the production of substances that adversely affect this layer.

Radioactivity as a result of the peaceful and military use of nuclear energy has become a serious danger to life on Earth. An important step in its reduction was Moscow Treaty on the Prohibition of Tests of Nuclear Weapons in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water, 1963 The IAEA sets safety standards for the use of nuclear energy in the national economy, including the safety of workers associated with it. was prepared Convention on Physical Protection nuclear materials 1980 The Convention contains provisions that allow any state to bring foreigners to criminal liability for relevant crimes, regardless of the place of its commission.

In Europe it operates European Atomic Energy Agency . The main standards in the area under consideration are established by the Treaty Establishing the European Atomic Energy Community (EUROATOM).

Protection of fauna and flora

1972 United Nations Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment endorsed the principle that the earth's natural resources, including air, water, surface, flora and fauna, should be protected for the benefit of present and future generations through careful planning and management, where necessary.

The overall strategy was developed by a non-governmental organization - the International Union for Conservation, Nature and Natural Resources - and published in 1982 in the form of a Program of Action "World Conservation Strategy". In the process of preparing the document, numerous consultations were held with governments and international organizations. The aim of the strategy is to promote the achievement of sustainable development through the conservation of living resources by offering governments effective methods regulation of these resources. The strategy is aimed at supporting important ecological processes and self-preservation of systems, such as soil restoration and protection, processing nutrients, water purification, biodiversity conservation. Many vital processes depend on all this. The task is to ensure the supportive use of certain species of animals and vegetation, as well as ecosystems.

The achievement of these goals should be as soon as possible. The possibilities of the Earth to provide for its population are shrinking all the time. Many millions of tons of soil are lost each year as a result of deforestation and misuse. At least 3 thousand square meters per year km of agricultural lands go out of circulation only in industrialized countries as a result of the construction of buildings and roads.

As one of the important means of achieving its goals, the strategy points to a radical improvement in the legislation on natural resources. It is necessary to create a more effective and comprehensive national environmental law, along with the intensification of the development of international environmental law. The survival of all the diversity of nature, including man, can only be ensured under the condition that the policy of states will be built with an understanding of the fact that all elements of nature are interconnected, interdependent, that the environment is a single global system.

World Charter for Nature , was approved and solemnly proclaimed by the General Assembly in 1982. According to the Charter, living resources should not be used beyond the possibilities of their restoration; soil productivity should be maintained and increased; resources, including water, should be recycled and reused as far as possible; non-recoverable resources should be used with the maximum limitation.

Among the conventions dedicated to flora and fauna, I will name first of all Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage of 1972 , designed to ensure cooperation in the protection of natural complexes of particular importance, habitats of endangered species of animals and plants. The protection of the plant world is dedicated to Agreement on tropical forests 1983 The general meaning is Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, 1973 ., which determined the basics of control over such trade.

The bulk of the conventions are aimed at protecting various representatives of the animal world - whales, seals, polar bears. I will especially note Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 , whose name gives an idea of ​​its content. It is also important Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals 1979

All of the above gives an idea of ​​the colossal importance of protecting the environment and the urgency of decisive measures based on broad cooperation between states. This also determines the role of international environmental law, which still lags behind the needs of life.

International Conservation of Natural Resources. Western practice.

What is more expensive - a small fish or a big dam?

In the rapids of the Little Tennessee River lives a small inconspicuous fish - snail darter Discovered for the first time in 1973, this representative of the perch family is found only here.

In the same year that the snail darter was discovered, the US Congress passed the Endangered Species Conservation Act. population endangered species so small that in the near future they may be completely wiped off the face of the earth. The law, in particular, states that the actions of the federal government should not threaten the existence of species listed in the Red Book, and species that are about to get there; these government agencies should also prevent the destruction or alteration of the habitats of species whose numbers have reached a critical level.

In 1966, seven years before people first knew about the existence of the snail darter, the US Congress authorized the construction of a dam on the river. Tellico, which was to be conducted under the direction of the Administration for the Basin of the river. Tennessee, as well as reservoirs on the Little Tennessee River. Until the discovery of the dar-ter, the construction of the dam was half completed. By 1975, when the darter was registered as an endangered species and listed in the Red Book, the construction of the dam was already three-quarters completed.

But darters do not breed in stagnant water reservoirs, they need running water. Thus, the completion of the dam, which cost an estimated $116 million, threatened to destroy the spawning grounds of the discovered new species, which would immediately lead to the death of the entire darter population and violation of the law on the conservation of endangered species. A number of environmental groups launched a case to stop construction, which eventually fell into Supreme Court. In 1978, when the dam was already 90% complete, the Supreme Court ruled that the construction project did in fact violate the adopted environmental law and therefore should either be canceled or changed. But did members of Congress really care when they passed this law to save a small population of small fish (these darters are 7.5 cm long)? As Holden (1977) noted, “There is no doubt that many members of Congress voted in favor of this legislation out of genuine concern for the cute dark-eyed creatures or winged creatures soaring high in the sky, but in the end they found themselves in front of Pandora's box, which hides countless crawling creatures, whose existence they never even suspected.”

Discussions that unfolded around the small fish forced the Tennessee River Basin Administration to reconsider plans to build a dam on the river. Little Tennessee, which is one of the few surviving clean rivers in the region. cold water teeming with fish. These discussions also prompted the US Congress to amend the Endangered Species Act, under which even a tiny fish would feel protected from the threat of a grand structure project. (NYT Pictures).

What is the value of any kind? Why should we strive to save them from the threat of extinction? Do we have the right to decide which species deserve to be saved and which do not? According to scientists, from 5 to 10 million species currently live on Earth, but to date, ecologists have discovered and described only from 1 to 1.5 million species. Meanwhile, the discovery of new species is increasingly turning into a fast-paced race, where the rival is endangered species. In prehistoric times, about one species died out every thousand years. Today we lose one species every year. Over the next 20 years, about a million species may disappear, most of which live in tropical rainforests.

Wildlife is an inexhaustible source of resources

Even such highly developed countries as the United States cannot do without gifts. wildlife(fuel, fish, nuts, berries, wood used as fuel, etc.). The annual production of products based on animal and plant raw materials obtained from the wild in the United States is estimated at 2.8 billion dollars. The use of wood for heating houses in the seventies increased by 50%. In the state of Vermont, for example, more than half of the homes are currently heated primarily by wood.

In developing countries, the importance of natural resources as food and fuel is even higher. Ten percent of the total amount of animal protein consumed worldwide comes from fish. In many developing countries, only wood is used for heating and cooking.

Ecosystem "household services"

In addition to the benefits that nature provides us in the form of food and fuel and which are easy to quantify, wild animals and plants provide us with a number of other services that, figuratively speaking, can be attributed to the ecosystem "household service". Plants give off oxygen that people and animals breathe. Further, plants and microorganisms purify water and air from pollutants, participate in the cycle of nutrients, and soften the climate. If one of these "services" can be provided through technological processes(removal of phosphates from wastewater can be done in wastewater treatment plants, although this is more expensive), others are practically irreproducible.

The practical importance of wild animals and plants for medicine, Agriculture and industry.

Disappeared species are forever lost opportunities. Wild animals and plants are the source medicines, food and raw materials used in industry. 25% common today in the US medicines contain plant extracts that cannot be obtained synthetically. These include tranquilizers such as reserpine, various antibiotics, pain relievers, and drugs used in the treatment of heart disease and to reduce blood pressure. Vincristine, derived from the tropical periwinkle, has been successfully used in the treatment of Hodgkin's disease, a disease that kills 5,000 to 7,000 Americans every year. Meanwhile, only 5,000 plant species have been studied for the production of drugs. Scientists say 5,000 more could be discovered medicinal plants among 500 thousand species growing on our planet.

Agronomists have discovered beneficial qualities in many organisms. For example, biological control methods, including the use of certain types of organisms to protect crops from the harmful effects of others, occupy an important place in agriculture. In particular, some species of wasps successfully protect sugarcane plantations from moths. Diatraea saccharalis. In addition, in modern agriculture, the practice of crossing different plant species is widely used in order to obtain hybrids characterized by high productivity. Genetic engineering is only at the beginning of its development today, but it is already clear that in the future it will be possible to transfer the desired genes that control traits useful for humans from one plant to another. Examples include properties such as resistance to various diseases, drought, insect pests, as well as medicinal properties and high protein content. Reducing the number of different different types on earth means a reduction in the genetic fund of wildlife. Every time we allow a species of animal or plant to go extinct, we risk forever losing either a beneficial organism or a beneficial gene.

Many plants secrete chemical substances, which are natural insecticides (killing insects) or herbicides (killing weeds). Others serve as a source of wax, lubricating oils, resins, fragrance oils, and dyes. This list can be continued indefinitely. Meanwhile, this is only what has already been found in useful plants and animals. Many useful substances for agriculture, medicine and industry are still waiting to be discovered.

Biological species as elements of biocenoses

The extinction of a species or group of species can lead to far-reaching consequences for the community in which this species lives. Complex food webs are typical of the temperate and tropical zones, but since only a relatively small number of these webs have been sufficiently studied, we cannot predict all the consequences that will occur if any species of animal or plant disappears. Many rare species insects, snails, birds either feed only on a certain type of plants, or use only certain types of them to build their homes. Therefore, the disappearance of this type of plant means, in essence, the death of the animal dependent on it. In another case, a predator may disappear, which normally regulates the number of any pest. Then there will be a sharp explosion in the pest population, as happened, for example, in those areas where DDT was widely used. causing great harm to agriculture.

Human desire to destroy wolves is partly due to the fact that the role of this predator in food webs has not yet been fully elucidated. Wolves destroy other animals, such as deer, on which they feed, killing, as a rule, the weakest sick and old individuals. Thus, they contribute to the improvement of the reindeer herd and maintain its population at a level that corresponds to the available food resources. People, hunting deer, not only reduce the number of animals that the wolf feeds on, but at the same time they always choose the most complete individuals, thereby worsening the quality of the herd.

Concern about the disappearance of plant species has grown much more slowly than about endangered animal species, although both are so closely interconnected that they can only be saved together. Many examples are known when the number of some animals reached a critical level, since the plants that served them as food or shelter practically disappeared. According to Peter Raven of the Missouri Botanical Gardens, for every extinct plant species, there are between 10 and 30 endangered species of insects, higher animals, and other plants. So, the red-headed woodpecker is threatened with extinction due to the fact that it nests on the dried trunks of swamp and Australian pines. However, in many areas there are practically no old trees left, they are being replaced by young seedlings that are grown to produce pulp. The maturation of the swamp pine, in turn, depends on the presence of a grass cover from the triostennitsa Aristida stricta, The sea otter, or sea otter, was almost completely exterminated in the 18th and 19th centuries. because of the valuable fur. At present, partly due to the passage of special laws, such as the law on the protection of marine mammals, the population of sea otters is recovering. And now they are trying to take revenge, if not on humans, then at least on species that are very valuable and useful to us, namely abalone, Pacific lobster and crab. A few individuals discovered near Monterey (California) in 1938 gave rise to a huge herd, now numbering up to 2000 heads. This herd spread 240 km along the coast. Unfortunately, this same stretch of coastline is also home to numerous edible shellfish, such as abalone, which sell for $8-$10 a pound on the market. Fishermen supplying these molluscs for sale are demanding a limit on sea otters to prevent further destruction of the lucrative fishing industry. However environmental studies showed that kapans are vital members of the coastal community. Feeding on species of marine invertebrates such as sea urchins, kapan protect thickets of seaweed, especially brown ones, from excessive grazing. Brown algae form the basis of food webs that include species such as the harbor seal and bald eagle. (Dr. Daniel Costa, Joseph M. Long Marine Laboratory, University of California, Santa Cruz)

Species value

The need to preserve the entire diversity of species existing on Earth stems not only from practical, but also from general philosophical considerations. Any extinct species we lose irretrievably. Without doing everything in our power to prevent these losses, we make a choice not only for ourselves, but also for our descendants. And this means that future generations of people will not see those animals and plants that we see; the nature surrounding them will not be as rich and varied as that which surrounds us. Meanwhile, this is not just a matter of aesthetic pleasure; It should be borne in mind that human evolution proceeded in conditions of a huge variety of nature surrounding him, and it is possible that this diversity is an indispensable condition for maintaining his mental health.

So far, we have considered species in terms of their usefulness to humans. On this occasion, Henry Beston (1928) wrote: “Being far from primeval nature, living a complex unnatural life, a civilized person sees everything in a distorted light, in a mote he sees a log, and approaches other living beings from the positions of his limited knowledge. We condescendingly look at them, demonstrating our pity for these "underdeveloped" creatures, who are destined to stand far below the level on which man stands. But such an attitude is the fruit of the deepest delusion. Animals should not be approached with human standards. Living in a more ancient and perfect world than ours, these creatures have such developed feelings that we have long lost or have never possessed them, the voices that they hear are inaccessible to our ears. We are not their older brothers, and they are not despicable creatures; it's just a completely different world, the existence of which coincided in time with ours, they are the same prisoners of this beautiful and cruel life.

Endangered species and human health

Once upon a time the idea of ​​using animals in scientific research met with opposition mainly because it was perceived as an example of cruelty to animals that are hurt. Scientists had to work hard "to convince the public that the animals in the experiment never experience pain.

Currently, however, new ethical issues have arisen. One of them is whether the experimental animals are kept in conditions appropriate to their social and behavioral characteristics? For example, animals such as chimpanzees, which live in groups under normal natural conditions, should not be kept in an isolated cage, because this would be a manifestation of cruelty towards the animal.

Further delving into the problem confronts us with another question: is it even legitimate to use animals in experiments, the number of which continues to decrease, even if we assume that humanity will greatly benefit from this. N. Wade (1978) writes in this regard: “... Continued production of a vaccine [for hepatitis] may well lead to a fatal conflict between human interests and the existence of the chimpanzee. Chimpanzees are the only animals in the world, with the exception of humans, on which it is possible to test the effect of the vaccine ... If a ban is imposed on the use - chimpanzees in experiments this species is already classified as endangered - testing the safety of the vaccine and its production will become impossible. Meanwhile, even in developed countries, where cases of hepatitis are relatively rare, people continue to pay a fatal tribute to this disease. In 1976, 15,000 cases of hepatitis were reported in the United States. However, according to the Center for Control infectious diseases, the actual figure reaches 150,000, of which 1,500 cases ended in death... ...Officials are trying to convince everyone that chimpanzee trapping is done only by humane means. “The method of trapping is usually a few people to localize a group of chimpanzees, surround them, and then pursue. Since young individuals usually get tired faster, they are simply taken with their hands. this is the version of chimpanzee trapping presented by a Merck representative to the Federal Wildlife Licensing Authority...”

“...Quite impossible if you don't have a big network,” writes Jane Goodall. only to say that someone really wants to hide what inhumane methods are actually used in catching chimpanzees, and they are like that - first they shoot at the mother. and then they take the baby. This is the standard method used in Africa." . F. Orlans (1978) adds:

“... It is necessary to find a way to resolve this conflict so that it does not turn out to be disastrous for the chimpanzee. In the past, the development of an alternative method of producing a vaccine (particularly for polio) has helped save the lives of many animals. Today, however, the ethical standards that call for a ban on inhumane ways of killing chimpanzees (in Wade's words, "to catch a chimpanzee, first kill the mother") and the preservation of this endangered animal species are ignored.

Do you think that purely human needs should prevail over the need to save endangered animal species? The first thing that immediately comes to mind when talking about factors that threaten the existence of a species is hunting. Indeed, hunting has made its fatal contribution to the extinction of a number of animal species, especially vertebrates. However, some well regulated populations of wild animals are not necessarily harmed by hunting; in fact, it can even be useful, especially in cases where the population size threatens to significantly exceed the optimal level for a given habitat. But uncontrolled hunting still contributes to the extinction of the species. Buffalo hunting on the American prairies has brought this species to early XIX V. to the brink of extinction. Hunting in this case has become simply a sport; its goal was often reduced to the extraction of a bison's head, which was planted in the hunter's house as a trophy. In Africa, the hunting of many species of large animals is limited or completely prohibited in order to preserve these species not only in zoos, but also in nature.

Habitat destruction

However, hunting is not the main danger that threatens animals. Most species are under threat of loss of natural habitats: the territories in which they live, breed, find food and shelter. With the growth of the population, a person needs more and more housing, roads, shopping centers; so the man cuts out woodlands, drains swamps, estuaries and bays, develops new mineral deposits, bringing barren rocks to the surface of the earth. All this leads to a reduction in land and food resources available to various species of animals and plants. In other words, man expands his habitat at the cost of reducing the habitats of other creatures.

In some cases, habitat destruction wild species occurs as a result of special measures, such as burning or flooding areas, carried out in order to attract even more animals that are objects of hunting. As a result, the number of animals such as elk, pronghorn antelope, white-tailed and black-tailed deer increases significantly. At the same time, these habitats become unsuitable for many other non-commercial species.

Many endangered plant species are a living link between modernity and those ancient eras when these species flourished on our planet. Now some of them have been preserved in specific niches along the banks of the rivers, in swamps and hollows, as well as in wastelands. Others are on the inaccessible slopes of mountains, in valleys between ridges, or in areas where glaciers never reach. Such plants are very rare, because they are adapted to exist only in the particular environment that they currently occupy. They can survive only if their habitats are protected.

Rainforest death

Virtually all types of habitats are being destroyed, but the problem is most acute in tropical rainforests. Every year there are cut down or otherwise exposed to forests on an area equal to approximately the entire territory of Great Britain. If the current rate of destruction of these forests is maintained, in 20-30 years there will be practically nothing left of them. Meanwhile, according to experts, two thirds of the 5-10 million species of living organisms that inhabit our planet are found in the tropics, especially in tropical forests.

Most often, excessive population growth is cited as the main cause of the death of most of the rainforests. This last circumstance in developing countries leads to an increase in the supply of firewood for heating homes and an expansion of the area for slash-and-burn agriculture practiced by local residents. The essence of this method lies in the fact that the farmer cuts down a piece of forest and grows crops in its place for several years. Then, when the soil is exhausted, the farmer moves to a new place and again cuts down some of the trees. Some experts, however, believe that the accusation is directed to the wrong address, since, in their opinion, the destruction of only 10-20% of forests is associated with slash-and-burn cultivation (Figures 5.6 and 5.7). A much larger part of tropical forests is being destroyed due to the large-scale development of pastoralism and the construction of military roads in Brazil, as well as as a result of an increase in the demand for tropical wood exported from Brazil, Africa and Southeast Asia (see sect. " Global Perspectives" after this part).

Pesticides and Air Pollution

A large number of habitats, which in many respects have survived undisturbed, have been poisoned by acid rain, pesticides, and airborne pollutants. Pine trees that grow on the slopes of the mountains around Los Angeles suffer from the harmful effects of smog that forms over the city. The widespread use of pesticides in agricultural regions threatens the survival of many species. For example, birds of prey such as falcons and hawks are severely affected by the effects of DDT. About 20-30 years ago, these birds began to lay eggs with very thin shells, so thin that they cracked even before the chicks were supposed to hatch. Scientists suggested that this phenomenon is due to the effect of DDT (Grier, 1982). The use of DDT is currently banned in the US mainly due to its harmful effects on some bird species.

As part of the plague control program in the American West, attempts were made to exterminate coyotes, foxes, and wolves using poisoned bait. However, this has had a detrimental effect on some populations of endangered species, and in particular on the population of the bald eagle, which also was not averse to feasting on the bait.

Collection of rare plants

Some types of plants, namely cacti, orchids and predator plants, are especially popular among collectors; these plants were so intensely collected that they almost disappeared in nature. Traders from Texas and Mexico dig up cacti in great numbers and send them to markets to sell to collectors and residents of the southeastern regions who use these plants for ornamental gardening. Half of the harvested cacti are sent even further, to Europe and the Far East.

Animals and plants must, of course, change as environmental conditions change. Species that fail to adapt to new conditions die out, and new ones take their place. There are no longer dinosaurs and flying reptiles on Earth, but today it is inhabited by such organisms that did not exist in those ancient times. Meanwhile, man is changing everything around him at such lightning speed that animals and plants do not have enough time for evolution, which would allow them to take the place of the lost species. The harsh truth of life is that a good half of all mammals extinct on Earth have been in the last 50 years.

environmental protection

There are many ways to ensure the protection of wildlife resources. One of them is the adoption of laws that ensure the protection of the species as a whole or increase the viability of individual individuals. In the United States, for example, a law on the conservation of endangered species has been passed. Representatives of different species can also be collected in zoos and botanical gardens; seed banks can be established. This allows us to hope that all the variety of living organisms on the planet will be at our disposal. For many species, however, this latter approach may not be practical. The fact is that some species require special conditions or certain population sizes for reproduction, and this is not always feasible in captivity. The third approach is the alienation of individual areas of nature and the creation of reserves on them, which include integral ecosystems. In this case, it is possible to save not only those species that are threatened with apparent extinction, but also all the species associated with them in a complex food web (see Section "Discussion 5.2").

Conservation of rare endangered species

The first among the laws concerning the protection of wildlife were laws on the tax on the possession of fishing and hunting equipment, as well as laws requiring a special permit for hunting and fishing. The proceeds from these taxes were used to purchase land to create reserves for endangered species of animals and plants. Millions of dollars were eventually raised for these purposes (a fact that should be noted by those who oppose hunting). A proposal was put forward to tax gardening implements to create a similar fund for plant protection.

In 1966, the US Congress passed the law on the conservation of endangered species of mammals and birds, which aims not only to protect wildlife, but also to outline the problem of the disappearance of undisturbed nature. The law provided for the compilation of lists of endangered species indicating the number of remaining individuals, as well as their areas of distribution. In 1973, this law was significantly strengthened as a result of a series of amendments to it. The law noted that its effect is limited only to the territory of the United States, therefore, it is unable to protect species that live in other parts. the globe. Another category of species was also singled out: candidate species for registration in the Red Book. These species have not yet disappeared, but the trend towards their extinction has already been outlined. And the sooner this trend is noticed, the more likely they are to be saved. Another important amendment to the law was that a list of endangered plant species was added to the list of endangered animal species. In addition, according to the adopted amendments, the federal authorities were forbidden to implement any projects that pose a threat to the existence of a particular species and its habitat. Despite the fact that this paragraph of the amendment to the law did not cause any special comments, when it was considered in Congress, it was he who became the basis of the conflict that arose during the construction of a dam on the river. Tellico. In the form in which it is written, the law did not allow comparing the benefits from the implementation of projects with possible consequences extinction of species.

Methods for managing wildlife resources

There are a number of special methods for the protection of endangered species, and ways to increase the abundance and diversity of species of particular interest, such as species that are the object of hunting. In some cases, animals are simply moved from their natural habitats to similar habitats. natural conditions regions where they have not been seen before. So, they mainly do it with common hunting species, for example, Canada goose. Introduced to many regions of the country, the wild turkey now occupies a territory that is much larger than that which it occupied in colonial times.

If the analysis of the situation shows that this species cannot survive without outside help even under favorable conditions, then the eggs of animals are collected and hatched in incubators; sometimes breeding programs are carried out in zoos. Animals bred in this way can be successfully returned to the wild in their natural habitat, although this is not possible in all cases. At sea ​​turtles, which, following their instinct, after hatching from an egg, immediately run to the water, and later return to their place of birth to lay eggs, apparently cannot develop the ability to correctly determine the direction to the place where they should lay eggs, when they are born in captivity. They swim to a dangerous depth, after which they cannot return to a beach area convenient for laying eggs. But at the same time, today about half of all American cranes that exist in nature have been bred and raised in captivity.

In a number of cases, efforts to conserve and breed rare animals are so successful that it becomes possible to allow limited hunting for them. A hundred years ago, American bison herds were so huge that you could spend hours watching just one herd go by. Fifty years ago there were only a few hundred left. However, in recent years, the number of bison has increased so much that it has become possible to allow limited hunting for them again.

Reserves and reserves

system of reserves in the usa. At the beginning of the XX century. in the United States, by decision of Congress, they began to alienate areas of undisturbed nature, or zakazniks, in order to contribute to the conservation of rare species. Plants are especially well preserved in nature reserves, which are created in places where protected species grow. Several specimens of plants in the botanical garden are not at all enough to ensure the safety and reproduction of the species. The first piece of land to be used as a sanctuary for rare and endangered plant species was purchased in 1980. It was the Anti-Ohia Dunes in California, the original habitat of the now rare wallflowers and evening primrose, or primrose. Many species of animals also find refuge in the reserves. For example, in the Red Rocks Lake Wildlife Refuge (Montana), the trumpeter swan is found in abundance. WHAT SIZES SHOULD RESERVES BE. According to MANY conservationists, reserves should be vast in area and measured in thousands of square kilometers. Smaller reserves may be insufficient for the survival of some species, and often those whose numbers have reached the most critical level. For example, large carnivores such as wolves or big cats require vast spaces to feed themselves and their offspring. In addition, large areas of reserves better protect protected species of animals and plants from the adverse effects of boundary factors, such as humans, and polluting environmental factors.

Special studies carried out on the islands make it possible to judge what size parks and reserves should be. It would seem that the number of various species of animals and plants found on it depends on the size of the island. However, the results of wildlife studies on the Pacific islands by environmentalists Wilson (Wilson, 1984) and MacArthur showed that doubling the area of ​​the island is not accompanied by the expected doubling of the number of species living on it. In order for the number of different species to double, an area ten times larger than the given one is required. We mention this work because parks and reserves increasingly appear to us as true islands of wilderness in the midst of a sea of ​​human-disturbed environment.

According to the law of island biogeography, if 90% of natural habitats are disturbed, and only 10% of the entire territory is allocated for parks and reserves, then we will be able to save no more than half of the original number of species living here. It follows that if we save only that part of the Amazon rainforest that is currently occupied by parks and reserves, then two-thirds of the half a million species of animals and plants that are in these forests will forever disappear from the face of the Earth.

It should be noted, however, that it is still not completely clear whether the island theory is fully applicable to parks. Although research currently being done in the rainforest by ecologists such as Thomas Lovejoy of the International Wildlife Fund suggests that such a comparison is legitimate. Lovejoy cites the example of a 10-hectare reserve where all peccaries, a widespread, pig-like animal, became extinct. As a result of an unexpected chain reaction, ten species of frogs also disappeared after the bakers, needing the wet recesses in the ground that the bakers made.

Another issue that conservationists need to address is the question of how large reserves should be in order to conserve and maintain genetic diversity within specific species. The fact is that as the number of populations of each species decreases, the circle of marriage partners is steadily narrowing. And as a result, the genetic similarity between the descendants grows, i.e. the degree of inbreeding increases. This process is unfavorable from the point of view of evolution. A population consisting of closely related individuals containing similar sets of genes is more vulnerable to the effects of a changed environment. Since the spread, or limits of variability, of traits within such a population is greatly narrowed, the likelihood that individual individuals will be able to show greater resistance to adverse effects or diseases compared to the bulk of organisms is practically reduced to zero. In addition, there is a very high probability that climate change, outbreaks of infections or competition from a new species can lead to the death of the entire population.

And yet, studies conducted as part of the wildlife breeding program have shown that the mortality of rare species, such as cheetahs, which are characterized by little genetic variability, is always higher both in natural conditions and in zoos. This is obviously due to the large number of birth defects caused by inbreeding (mating of closely related individuals). Limited sizes a nature reserve, within which only small populations of species (especially large mammals) can live, inevitably leads to such genetic homogeneity of populations.

With all these factors in mind, the United Nations Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (UNESCO) began to develop a program to create "biospheric" or "ecological" reserves, which would be a network of protected reference sites of the main ecosystems of the globe. Each reserve should be large enough in area to ensure the existence of all types of living organisms living within its limits, protect them from the adverse effects of external factors, and maintain the required level of genetic diversity. Only in this case, the conditions of existence in the reserves will allow animals not only to successfully grow and multiply, but also to evolve; in addition, the reserves will serve as a kind of standard of nature, in comparison with which it is possible to determine the degree of human impact on the environment.

In addition to laws requiring the creation of nature reserves, more stringent laws are needed to limit the use of pesticides near protected areas where game animals or rare species of animals and plants live and breed.

Global economic aspects of the conservation of endangered species of animals and plants

International environmental law

Definition 1

International environmental law is the legislative norms, according to which the state and society must carefully and diligently treat the environment and preserve it. Protected natural objects include forests, rivers, lakes, as well as agricultural lands. In addition, we note the issue of utilization and processing of pollutants and toxic substances harmful to humans and nature, which is related to the conservation of nature.

International environmental law is a branch of international law. The law we are considering corrects contacts between countries and interstate organizations on issues related to the protection and conservation of natural objects and resources.

The subject of international environmental law is the establishment and regulation of legal relationships between countries on the issue of environmental protection.

Remark 1

It should be noted that the adopted norms of international environmental legislation can have significant legal force and solve environmental problems.

The subjects of environmental international law are states and international organizations. Their main tasks are the conservation of the world around us and the skillful use of the resources at the disposal of mankind.

Forms of implementation, principles and sources of international environmental law

Consider the process of implementing a decision related to the field of international environmental law.

Emerging problems related to environmental issues and environmental protection can be considered in such instances as

• national court
• international Court
• International Arbitration Commission

But at the same time, in order to make any decision related to international environmental legal relations, the consent of governments to submit to the jurisdiction of international bodies is necessary. And as a result, states, avoiding the possibility of incurring political and economic damage, refuse such jurisdiction.

The main principles of environmental international law are:

1. The affiliation of certain natural resources to a particular state, as sovereign in a given region.
2. Not causing any harm to the environment of neighboring countries.

[Note] However, note that according to the Stockholm Declaration on the Environment of 1972, these principles are combined into one. Namely, the principle that the countries of the globe have the full right to develop the available natural resources in accordance with their laws, but bear full legal responsibility for possible damage to other states as a result of their actions.

The sources of the law we are considering are multilateral treaties between states of the whole world and customary legal norms that have been established in international law.

Among the multilateral treaties, we note the following concluded documents:

• International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, 1969,
• International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973,
• Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources 1980
• Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer 1985

To the usual legal norms of international law concerning nature protection, we refer, as an example, bilateral agreements between the Russian Federation and Belarus concluded in 1993 and 1994.

To international organizations that deal with the protection and conservation surrounding nature include such political and public associations as the UN (United Nations), the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO).

The UN, in particular, is engaged in activities related to climate change in modern world and finding ways to solve this problem. Also, the UN deals with the problems of environmental pollution, as well as the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) mentioned by us.

As for international conferences, their work can also have a positive impact on the problems of protection and restoration of the natural environment. Let us note here such earlier international conferences in Brazil in 1992 and a conference in Switzerland in 1993, which brought together European countries that sent their ministers there.

Protection of the World Ocean

In order to protect the World Ocean as one of the most important natural spheres on planet Earth and one of the most important sources of biological and mineral sources, the issue of developing a mechanism for protecting the ocean biosphere has become extremely important.

In particular, in 1992 the Convention on Biological Diversity was adopted. The main goal of this document was the conservation and reasonable use of the biological diversity of the surrounding world.

Remark 2

At the same time, biological diversity is understood as the totality of living organisms living in all spheres of wildlife.

In order to preserve such diversity, and hence the necessary resources for the development, existence and survival of mankind itself, states adopt various international agreements designed to preserve and strengthen the biosphere of the entire planet Earth.

Protection of international rivers

One of the main legal international sources regarding the protection and protection of rivers that are international is the following document. This is the Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes, adopted in 1992.

Thus, according to this document, the countries that have signed this international document undertake to comply with the following requirements. Namely:

States must take all appropriate measures to prevent pollution of rivers or at least reduce the negative impact on river waters.

Take actions that promote both the wise use of water resources and the gradual restoration of the ecosystem of rivers, as appropriate.

Protection of the North and South Pole regions

The North Pole, the Arctic and the South Pole, Antarctica are among the important reserve sources of resources and minerals for the entire human community.

In order to protect and protect the ecosystem of these regions, the following actions have been taken. So, for the protection and coordination of actions related to the North Pole, the Arctic Council was created in 1996, which included countries with possessions in Arctic zone. This Council also includes Russia.

To protect and manage the southern mainland, Antarctica, relevant international legal norms have also been created. One of these documents, namely the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, adopted in 1991, spoke about the protection and responsibility of states to protect and preserve a unique ecosystem. This document was also signed by the Russian Federation.

Environmental protection refers to global issues survival of human civilization. Therefore, the natural environment is an important object of international legal regulation.

Under environmental law understand the totality of principles and norms governing the activities of states to prevent and eliminate damage of various types and from various sources applied to the national environmental systems of individual states and environmental systems beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.

Main objects international legal protection of the natural environment are land, subsoil, the oceans, celestial bodies, airspace, outer space, flora and fauna of the Earth, as well as the fight against the main sources of environmental pollution.

The main sources of environmental pollution are industrial and chemical wastes, nuclear weapon and composite materials, oil and gas, vehicles, human activities (legitimate and illegal).

There are the following groups of objects international legal protection of the natural environment: I. The entire planetary environment (ecosystem) of the Earth:

the oceans and its Natural resources;

Atmospheric air;

near-Earth space;

Individual representatives of the animal and plant world;

Unique natural complexes;

Part of freshwater resources, the genetic fund of the Earth (chernozem).

P. National natural resources under the jurisdiction of the state. In determining their legal status, the main role is played by the norms of internal law. Along with this, for individual objects, the number of international treaties relating to their protection is increasing.

III. International natural resources that are beyond the limits of national jurisdiction or which, in the course of their development (natural cycle), end up on the territory of other states.

The legal regime for the protection and use of these resources is determined by the norms of international law.

Resources are divided into two groups:

1. Universal, which are in the common use of all states (for example, the high seas, outer space, Antarctica, the seabed beyond national jurisdiction);

2. Multinational(shared), which are owned or used by two or more countries (for example, water resources of multinational rivers, populations of migratory animals, border natural complexes).

The sources of international environmental law are divided into two groups:

- international treaties And

- international customs. Types of international treaties:

A) universal:

Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, 1972;

Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973;

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna, 1973;

1977 Convention on the Prohibition of Military and Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modifiers;

Convention on Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution, 1979;

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982; 6) regional:

- Convention for the Protection of Fauna and Flora in Europe 1979;

Conservation Convention mediterranean sea from the 1976 pollution.

And others.

Basic principles of international environmental law:

- international environmental cooperation between states and other subjects of international law;

No harm to the natural environment;

Assessment of transboundary environmental impacts of the proposed activity;

The natural environment outside the state border is the common property of all mankind;

International liability for environmental damage;

Freedom to explore and use the natural environment and its components;

Rational use of the natural environment;

And others.

In the context of the ongoing scientific and technological revolution, the increase in the real threat of man-made emergencies, the importance of international cooperation in this area is growing. An important role in such cooperation is played by the conclusion of international treaties of a specialized nature. So, for example, to international conventions for environmental safety include:

a) Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Interference with the Natural Environment, 1977, which obliges:

Do not resort to military or any other enemy
Debt use of means of impact on the environment
consuming the natural environment by deliberately
changes in the dynamics of the state, the structure of the Earth, including
tea its biota, lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere or
space; i

Not to help, encourage or induce subjects of international law to carry out military or other hostile use of means of influencing the natural environment;

Use means of influencing the environment for peaceful purposes;

Take any legal measures to prohibit and prevent any activity that is contrary to the implementation of environmental safety measures;

b) the 1979 Convention on Transboundary Air Pollution, which obliges:

Protect people and the natural environment from air pollution, limit, reduce and prevent air pollution from sources located on the state territory;

Through the exchange of information, consultations and monitoring (ongoing observation), develop a strategy for combating air pollutant emissions;

Develop best systems regulation of air quality, measures to combat its pollution.

International cooperation in the field of environmental protection can be global, regional, subregional and interstate.

In 1972, within the framework of the United Nations, the Program for the Protection of the Environment (UNEP) was developed, headquartered in Nairobi (Kenya). This program is a special international mechanism for coordinating cooperation between states in the field of environmental protection. The structure of UNEP includes the Board of Governors, the Secretariat and the Environment Fund.

UNEP is led by a Director and a Governing Council composed of representatives from 58 countries. The main functions of the Council are:

Promoting international cooperation in the field of the environment and providing, as appropriate, policy advice to this end;

Implementation of general management and coordination of programs in the field of the environment carried out by UN organizations;

Preparation of reviews of the state of the environment and identification of ways for international cooperation;

Implementation of continuous observation (monitoring) of the impact of national and international policies on the state of the environment and environmental protection measures for developing countries;

Preparation of an overview of the activities envisaged by the Environment Fund, etc.

UNEP operates in a sessional manner. The session meets annually, and the executive director and the secretariat participate in its preparation.

The Executive Director heads the office, which includes: the department of environmental assessment; department of management in the field of environmental protection; department but problems omit-

poking; sector of environmental education; | sector reports on the state of the environment! environment.

Under the leadership of the secretariat, there are: a bureau for program issues; department of external relations and policy planning; liaison offices in New York and Geneva; information service, regional representative offices.

The Bureau of Questions plays an important role in the activities of the Environment Fund! Fund for the Environment and Administration. It includes an administrative department and an assistant executive director.

To the most important areas of environmental protection | UNEP activities include:

Protection of individual natural objects (protection of the marine environment, protection of soils and fresh waters);

Fighting various types harmful impact I (combating desertification, pollution);

Rational use of natural resources;

Establishment of a global reference service for monitoring the state of the environment (monitoring);

The study of ecological features of development j settlements;

Development of an international legal framework for environmental protection, etc.

With the support and active participation of UNEP, the Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea from Pollution of 1976, the Kuwait Regional Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution of 1978, the Bonn Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals of 1979 and many others were developed and adopted.

Very relevant and effective are the international forums organized under the auspices of the UN and devoted to the problems of environmental protection. One of such representative international forums was the Conference on

environment and development, which took place in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro. The most important result of the conference was the adoption of the Declaration.

The principles enshrined in the "Declaration of Rio":

Observance of human rights in the field of environmental protection;

Cooperation of states in the field of environmental protection;

Sustainable development of human society;

Peace and peaceful resolution of environmental disputes.

In the same document, the principles of cooperation between states in the field of environmental protection were again enshrined:

(a) protection of the natural environment is an integral part of the process of peaceful development;

(b) the adoption by states of effective laws in the field of environmental protection, establishing the responsibility of subjects for environmental pollution;

(c) prevention of the facts of transfer of pollutants to other states that cause damage to the environment and people;

(d) mutual information about activities that may have negative transboundary consequences for the natural environment;

(e) global partnership of states to preserve the Earth's ecosystem;

(f) assessing the expected environmental impacts of prospective activities;

(g) respect for international law and ensuring the protection of the natural environment during armed conflicts.

In addition to universal international organizations, many regional organizations of general and special competence deal with the problems of environmental protection.

Thus, the Maastricht Treaty on the European Union (EU) consolidates the environmental goals of this organization! downgrading - to promote on international level measures (| relating to regional and global environmental problems. Annexes to the Maastricht Treaty are three declarations on environmental topics: directives on harmful emissions on the impact of EU measures on environmental protection! Environment; on the protection of animals.

Within the EU, the European Environment Agency and the European Environmental Information and Observation Network were established in May 1990. The main task of this Agency is to provide the EU and Member States with objective information in order to develop and implement effective and efficient environmental policies. The Agency draws up quarterly reports on the quality, intensity and nature of the impact on the environment, develops uniform assessment criteria, data on the state of the environment. The priority objects of observation in the activities of the Agency are: air, its quality and emissions into the atmosphere; water, its quality and agents polluting water resources; soil, its condition, flora, fauna, biocurrents and their condition; land use and natural resources; recycling and reuse waste, non-waste technologies; noise pollution; chemicals harmful to the environment, etc.

Other regional organizations (OSCE, CE, CIS) are paying more and more attention to the problems of environmental security. Thus, within the framework of the OSCE in Sofia in 1989, a Conference on the Protection of the Environment was held. The recommendations of the Meeting, which were later adopted by the Paris Summit (1990), emphasized the importance of cooperation between states in the scientific, technical, administrative, legal and educational aspects environmental protection.

The regional organizations of special competence include the Commission for the countries of the southern part Pacific Ocean which was established in 1947. Its main task is to promote the improvement of economic, social and cultural conditions, as well as environmental protection through mutual consultations between the governments of the states of the region.

An example of international sub-regional cooperation of states in the field of environmental protection can be the Black Sea Protection Program, developed within the framework of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation Organization, established in June 1992.

An important role in the protection of the natural environment is played by international non-governmental organizations (World Wildlife Fund, Greenpeace, International Institute on Environment and Development, International Council on Environmental Law, International Environmental Court, etc.). Their activities are becoming more active and becoming more and more effective in the international arena, providing public support and; control of the international community in matters of environmental safety. International practice in recent years provides examples of positive interaction between states and international intergovernmental organizations with these public structures in the environmental sphere.

Literature:

1. Kolbasov O.S. International legal protection of the environment. - M., 1982.

2. The course of international law. In 7 vols. T. 5. - M., 1992.

3. Speranskaya L.V., Tretyakova K.V. International environmental law. - M., 1995.

4. Timoshenko A.S. Formation and development of international environmental law. - M., 1986.

5. Chichvarin V.A. Environmental protection and international relationships. - M., 1970.