Application of functions and limits in sociology. Cheat sheet: Sociology and its functions Peer review method in social research

Specific Functions of Sociology

In addition to the main functions of sociology, some scholars distinguish a number of specific functions:

E. Durkheim believed that sociology should give specific recommendations for the development and improvement of society.
V.A. Yadov adds practically transformative, educational and ideological functions to the main functions. The main applied functions of sociology consist in an objective analysis of social reality.
A.G. Zdravomyslov identifies ideological, theoretical, instrumental and critical functions.
G.P. Davidyuk, along with the main functions, highlights the educational function of sociology.

Theoretical-cognitive function

The theoretical-cognitive function consists in the study and analysis of social reality. It is focused on the creation of new sociological knowledge, is the basis for the implementation of other functions.

The cognitive function is carried out at all levels of sociological knowledge:

general theoretical level - hypotheses are developed, problems of social reality are formulated, methods of tools, ways of sociological research are determined, social forecasts are made;
middle level - translation of general concepts to the empirical level, increasing knowledge about the essence, specific situations, contradictory phenomena of human activity;
empirical level - new facts revealed in the course of sociological research increase the volume of substantiated knowledge about social reality.

predictive function

Predictive feature provides science-based predictions further development individual spheres and structures of society, society as a whole, is the theoretical basis for creating long-term plans for their development.

Social forecasts indicate the necessary changes, show the possibilities for its implementation, allow practical advice to improve the efficiency of social process management.

Depending on the group of social factors to which practical recommendations belong, they may be of the following nature:

objective (political system, social structure of society, working conditions, human behavior, etc.);
subjective (goals, motives, interests, attitudes, values, public opinion, etc.).

Critical function

Thanks to the critical function the world evaluated from the point of view of the interests of the individual. Having objective knowledge, it is possible to identify deviations in the development of society, leading to negative social consequences.

There is a differentiated approach to reality. It is indicated that the social structure can be preserved, strengthened and developed, and what can be radically changed.

1. Sociology as a science... Social - the doctrine of society as a socio-cultural system. To understand the features of sociology, it is necessary to define the methods operated by sociology. For this, a strict distinction must be made between object (what is researched) And subject (research results) sociology.

It is believed that the object of social cognition is the totality of properties, connections and relationships that are called social. Social, art. Russian sociologist Osipov, is a set of certain properties and features of social relations integrated by individuals or communities in the process of joint activity in specific conditions, and manifested in their relationship to each other, to their position in society, to the phenomena and processes of social life. A social phenomenon occurs when the behavior of even one individual is influenced by another or their community group. It is when interacting with each other that individuals influence each other, contributing to the fact that each of them becomes the bearer and spokesman of any social qualities. Thus, social communications, social interaction, social relationships and the way they are organized are objects of sociological research.

The subject of sociology, because it is the result of research-their actions, cannot be defined unambiguously. Throughout the history of sociology, its subject matter has changed. Comte believed that sociology is a positive science of society. Durkheim called the subject of sociology social data. Weber, sociology is the science of social behavior, which it seeks to understand and interpret. Marxism is studied. general as a social. system and its constituent structural elements - personalities, social. communities, social institutions.

IN domestic literature there is a widespread definition of sociology as a science of society, i.e. social the system as a whole, about the functioning and development of this system through its constituent elements: individuals, social communities, institutions.

A peculiar form of intersection of all these levels are such structural elements of sociology as branch sociology: the sociology of labor, the sociology of leisure, the sociology of health care, etc. In this case, we are talking about the division of labor in the field of sociology according to the nature of the objects under study.

Structure of sociological knowledge:

In addition to external institutionalization, sociology must undergo a process of internal institutionalization. Internal institutionalization means the improvement of the organizational structure of science, the existence of a stable division of labor within the discipline, the formation of rules and norms professional ethics, development of effective research methods and techniques. All this should ensure the actual process of production and systematization of knowledge in a particular field of knowledge. One of the most important places in this process belongs to the division of labor, the presence in the organizational structure of science of three relatively independent levels: 1) level of fundamental research, whose task is to increase scientific knowledge by constructing theories that reveal the universal laws and principles of this area; 2) level of applied research, in which the task is to study topical problems of direct practical value, based on existing fundamental knowledge; 3) social engineering - the level of practical implementation scientific knowledge in order to design various technical means and improve existing technologies.

Along with these three levels, sociologists also distinguish macro- and microsociology within their science. Macrosociology explores large-scale social systems and historically long processes. Microsociology studies the ubiquitous behavior of people in their direct interpersonal interaction. These levels are closely interconnected, since the direct, everyday behavior of people is carried out within certain social systems, structures and institutions.

2. Functions of sociological science

Cognitive. function is to study the social phenomena in order to obtain adequate scientific. ideas about their essence and content, connection With other phenomena, the nature and patterns of development. Poznavat f-Ia zakl-Xia also in order to develop scientific on the basis of the analysis of social processes. forecasts of their further development in the field of materials., watered. or spirits. life about-va. Such forecasts m / t have a long time. or current character: at the level of general sociologist. theories it is m / t to go about a deep foresight of development trends about-va in the near and distant future, within the framework of the special. sociologist. m/b theories produced useful predictions. Practical function is that on the basis of empirical. analysis of social phenomena and processes to develop pract. recommendations. At the end account, these recommendations are aimed at improving the mechanism of social. management, increasing its efficiency at all levels - from managing a team to managing the affairs of the society - this makes everything modern. about-va, especially the most civilized. None of them let the development of eq-ki, social-no-class take its course. and national relation, political syst. about-va. One of the important f-th sociology- function ideological, as soon as sociology in one form or another expresses the interests of certain. social groups, classes, watered. parties and movements. The sociologist comprehends the social studies he is studying. processes, societies. rel. and activities are different. subjects from the positions determined. worldview, the formation of which depends on its social. provisions. The conclusions and generalizations formulated by the sociologist affect not only the interests of that social group to which he belongs, but also the interests of other social. groups, including classes. Thus, these conclusions and generalizations acquire an ideologist. content, a certain ideologist. shade.

3. Nation as a socio-ethnic community

A nation is a socio-cultural community of people that has historically formed and is characterized by territorial and historical-cultural unity, realized by individuals and constituting the core of spiritual life, traditions, and psychology. The nation is united by all social, economic, gender classes => it cannot be considered along with the class, community and other social units. Ethnic features - historical memory, culture, values. 3 stages: tribes->peoples->nations. Ethnos is a reflection of national self-consciousness. Levels in the psychological structure of personality: 1) egocentric 2) group-centric 3) universally humanistic. National psychology is a historically formed, cumulatively stable, characteristic for a national community of sensual, emotional St. and ways of perceiving the world, forms of reaction to it. The problem is to understand how the whole history of the people, its general structure, the environment inhabited, culture, etc., is reflected in the psychology and character of the whole people and how these saints are integrated into the psyche of the individual. (Russian - personification of power, long-suffering,

4. G .Spencer and his organic theory of society. Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

The essence of the organic theory of society is that it is considered. How one system interactions of natural, primarily biological, and social factors. According to this theory, all sides of the total. lives are organically interconnected and cannot function. Out of this connection. Only within the framework of a holistic social-natural organism are the true significance of any social institution and the social role of each subject manifested. He considered society as an organism, having developed according to natural, mainly biological, laws. He likened society to a living biologist. Organism, substantiating this approach with the help of a trace. Doc-in:1. both living organisms and any society in the process of their growth and development increase in mass; 2. both become more complicated; 3. their parts are increasingly dependent on each other; 4. those and others continue to live as wholes, although the composition of their units constantly appear and disappear. It can be noted that the system of cited docking-in similarities of society with a living organism is entirely based on natural circumstances and does not take into account the specific social qualities of society. The following are examples.

5. Observation as a method of sociological research.

Observation in sociology - is simple. method of collecting primary information, underlying other methods. It is borrowed from the natural sciences, where it came from life. However, observation in everyday life and scientific. observation is not the same. Scientific observation excelled by regularity, systematic, subsequent verification of the result. M / o meet dec. types of observations .: formalized And informal, included(when the researcher is a participant in events - a journalist, a sociologist changes his profession, becoming a loader, taxi driver, turner, etc.) and not included, when the observation is carried out with the non-interference of the researcher in the events under study. Every type of observation has its «+» And «-» sides. «+» included observation - the opportunity to learn all the subtleties of events, the driving motives of the chapters. actors. «-» - the danger of losing the objectivity of the evaluation of the study. phenomena, because the researcher often identifies himself with the observed. Not included observation much simpler, but it gives more superficial information about the phenomenon under study. With such observation, it is difficult to take into account the motives of people's actions, and the role of the observer is relatively passive. Observation. open And hidden These are types of included observation. In the 1st case, the object knows that it is being watched and makes appropriate adjustments to its behavior. In this case, the purity of the experiment, experience, research is lost. With covert surveillance this shortcoming is eliminated, but the question arises about the ethical. side of the collection of the 1st information. With all the attraction of observation. as a method of collecting social information (simplicity and low financial costs) he has a lot weak places is the difficulty in guaranteeing the validity of the data. The observer fixes local events, facts. Practice is difficult to cover more. number of events.For the purpose of obtaining a lens. information about the study. phenomenon, social fact isp-Xia methods of control: observation. for supervision; control by other methods; re-observation. and so on.

Observation is considered reliable if, when it is repeated in the same conv. and with the same object gives the same results.

6. Anarchist direction in Russian sociology of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

We see the theoretical content and practical orientation of anarchism in the works of Russian thinkers and revolutionaries M. Bakunin and P. Kropotkin. According to Bakunin, the essence of anarchy is expressed in the words: “leave things to their natural course. Hence one of the central ideas of A. - the idea of individual freedom as its natural state. Proceeding from this, B. at the same time pointed to "the entirely social nature of freedom, for it can be realized" only through society "and" with the strictest equality and solidarity of everyone with everyone. Man, according to the thinker, comes into conflict with social institutions, ogre. His freedom and also with the state. According to him, the state is always the power of the minority, the opposite. strength to the people. It remains "a lawful violator of the will of the people, a constant denial of their freedom." The socialist-anarchist, according to his statement, while living for himself, at the same time serves society. He is natural, moderately patriotic, always very humane. The ideas of anarchism have received their far. Development in the works of Peter Kropotkin. He argued that anarchism is more than a mere mode of action or the ideal of a free society. Anarchism is also "a philosophy of both nature and society." The theorist considered it possible to establish "stateless communism" on the basis of "a union of agricultural communities, manufacturers of artels and associations of people with interests." Kropotkin proposed "anarchist communism" as a society of equal people, entirely based on self-government.

Conclusion. Having become acquainted with the teachings of Russian thinkers of anarchism, one can come to several conclusions. On the one hand, one of the main ideas - the destruction of any state is naive and speculative, but on the other hand, the idea of justice, equality and individual freedom remains relevant today, and now there are many supporters and followers.

7. O.Kont is the founder of sociology. sociology as independent. and integrity. science about-ve became franc. uch. and phil-f - positivist Auguste Comte. He acted p / in order to consider society as a simple set of individuals who were considered by many thinkers as a kind of “social. atoms”, existing almost autonomously in relation to. to each other.According to this, the more developed the department. individuals with t.z. their ability to production., spirit. and other activities, morals, political. and other qualities, the more perfect will be the society. All these qualities must be developed in people. By themselves, these qualities cannot be developed in anyone. Necessary: upbringing and education, thanks to which people can acquire the knowledge and experience of previous generations; the inclusion of people in a variety of types of communication so that they can implement in modern times. level of production., watered. and spirit. activity - writer, artist, composer, scientist, etc. TO. introduced the concept sociology, denoting the doctrine of about-ve, which he often called philosophy. TO. also used the terms social statics to interpret the structure of the Society and social dynamics, with the help of which he revealed the mechanism of functioning and development of the society. TO. called his phil-ia and soc-ia positive, while explaining that they are completely based on the data of science - not on imagination or conjecture, but on scientific observations. He entered the history of science and philosophy as the founder positivism - one of the most influential trends in the field of philosophy and sociology to this day.Center. link philosophical and sociologist. views TO. is open to them "great main. intellectual law. evolution human. According to the law, know. activities of people and their societies as a whole. consciousness passed through 3 stages its development.On theological stages development of societies. consciousness is dominated by religion. mythology. Chel-to tends to the absolute. cognition of the phenomena that strike his imagination and ultimately explains the absolute by their action. supernatural. forces. At the end, there will be a transition to monotheism (monotheism). In addition, the place is religious. the imagination begins to occupy the experience. knowledge about connections and dependencies yavl. ext. world and human life. On metaphys. stages people consciousness no longer operates with imagination, but with concepts that reflect the real. external processes. peace. However, due to the weak development of science, these concepts are rather abstract. Various kinds of phenomena are explained by highlighting some abstract entities, the expression of which is external objects, incl. social peace. As a "common essence" is called nature, space, matter, spirit as the sources of all bodily and spirit. phenomena. This method did not allow to completely get rid of myths. positive stage people consciousness in its judgments and conclusions comes from scientific. observations. Looks of interest TO. on natural and progressive character of the development of the society. The latter is subject in its development to the biologist-them, as well as the "astronomer-them" laws. He wrote about the impact on the development of about-va climate and racial composition of us. But head. influence on the development of the society is exerted by the intellectual evolution of man as the evolution of his consciousness. At the same time, he assigned a special role to science as the highest manifestation of intellectual evolution.

8. Program and plan in sociological research.

Preparation of social Research directly begins with the development of the program, consisting of 2 departments - methodological and methodological. The methodology section includes: a) the formulation and justification of the social problem; b) definition of the object and subject of social research; c) definition of the researcher's tasks and formulation of hypotheses. The methodological section involves the definition of the population under study, the description of the methods for collecting primary social information, the aftermath of using the tools for its collection, the logical scheme for processing the collected data on a computer. Careful preparation of the program of social research allows you to avoid mistakes during the study itself and the analysis of its results. The essence of the program of any research is, first of all, a deep and comprehensive substantiation of methodological approaches and methodological methods for studying social problems.

No matter how important the program and sampling are, a work plan is indispensable. The plan is created on the basis of certain rules, the essence of which is that all scientific research and organizational and technical procedures and operations are grouped into four sections. The first section provides for the preparation, condemnation, approval of the program and tools of social research. The second section includes all organizational and methodological types of work, that is, it answers the questions: what needs to be done, where and when, in what time frame. The third section is usually devoted to the planning of operations related to the preparation of information collected in the field. The fourth section is the types of work related to the analysis of processing results.

9. E. Durktheim and his theory evolutionary development society.

Emil Durkheim continued to develop the theory of about-va as a unit. social organism, such a system, the elements of which should be in harmony with each other for the sake of preserving the whole. In his theories of social realism he proceeded from the fact that the nature of the social. phenomena should be explained by social. factors that outcome. the moment of analyzing the behavior of people, their diverse activities, are about-in as a syst. interactions of individuals, social. groups and relevant social. institutions . D. was a supporter of the development of scientific. method in sociology, which consists in rationalistic those. strictly logical, explanation of the phenomena of society. life. He began to develop the method of sociology - there is a science of social facts by which he understood political, rights, morality, religion, and other ideas, norms and values developed by the collective consciousness of people and forcing the department. individuals to act in accordance with these ideas, norms and values. End reasons for social phenomena are ideas and spirit. the values of people that they put into practice. In them he finds the source of all social. evolution. Every people-to catches the already established definitions. polit., rights., morality. and other norms, values and social. installation. He d / n to learn and put into practice. D. points to 2 main sign of social facts: their objective existence in relation to department. individuals and their coercion on people. D. proceeded from an understanding of how social creatures, the development and activities of which take place under the decisive influence of social. norms and regulations. At the social facts common spirit. nature and essence. They are all manifestations of groups. or mass consciousness.

10 . Basic principles of the materialistic doctrine of society

K. Marx and F. Engels.

A peculiar synthesis of the classical and non-classical type of scientific character in the field of sociology is the materialistic doctrine of society by K. Marx (1818-1883), F. Engels (1820-1895) and their followers. When creating this doctrine, K. Marx and F. Engels proceeded from the naturalistic principles of positivism, which required considering social phenomena as facts and building social science on the model of the natural sciences, with a cause-and-effect explanation of facts characteristic of them. The subject of sociology in Marxism, as noted above, is the study of society, the main laws of its development, as well as the main social communities and institutions. What are the most important principles of the materialist doctrine of society?

1) One of the most important principles of historical materialism is the recognition of the laws of social development. The recognition of regularity means the recognition of the action in society of general, stable, repetitive, essential connections and relationships between processes and phenomena.

2) principle of determinism that is, the recognition of the existence of causal relationships and dependencies. K. Marx and F. Engels considered it necessary to single out the main, defining ones from the whole variety of natural structures, connections and relations. Such, in their opinion, is the method of production of material goods, consisting of productive forces and production relations. Recognition of causality, which determines the influence of the mode of production on social life, is another important proposition of the Marxist doctrine of society.

3 progressive progressive development. The principle of progress is realized in Marxism through the doctrine of socio-economic formations as the main structures of social life.

4) The application to the analysis of society of the general scientific criterion of regularity and causality in development is linked in Marxism with the recognition of the uniqueness of the development of social processes. This linkage has found its vivid expression in the concept of the development of society as natural history process. The natural-historical process is just as natural, necessary and objective as natural processes. It not only depends on the will and consciousness of people, but also determines their will and consciousness. But at the same time, in contrast to the processes of nature, where blind and elemental forces act, the process of natural history is the result of human activity. Nothing happens in society except by passing through people's consciousness. In this regard, in Marxist sociology, much attention is paid to the study of the dialectics of objective regularity and the conscious activity of people.

5) All of the above shows that Marxist sociology is in line with the traditional type of scientificity and is aimed at recognizing the objectivity of scientific knowledge about society, but there is also an opposite tendency in it, which focuses on what G. Simmel and M. Weber call the principle reference to value, that is, the coordination of empirical data and theoretical conclusions “with the historical interest of the era”, which meant exclusively the interests of the proletariat. According to this principle, sociological research, any theory of social life bear the imprint of the social class positions of its authors

11. Modern Western Sociology: Main Western Trends

Modern Zap Sots (SZS) is an extremely complex and controversial formation, represented by many different schools and trends. One of the most fruitful variants of the classification of modern social trends was proposed by the Swedish sociologist P. Monson. He identifies 4 main areas. The first approach and the tradition that the sociologist derives from it proceed from the primacy of society in relation to the individual and focus their attention on the study of higher-order patterns, leaving the sphere of subjective motives and meanings in the shade. Society is understood as a system that rises above individuals and cannot be explained by their thoughts and actions. It primarily includes the school of structural-functional analysis (T. Parsons) and the theory of conflict (L. Koser, R. Dahrendorf). The second approach, on the contrary, shifts the focus of its attention towards the individual, arguing that without studying the inner world of a person, his motives and meanings, it is impossible to create an explanatory social theory. This includes such areas as symbolic interactionism, phenomenology, ethnomethodology. The third approach focuses on the study of the very mechanism of the process of interaction between society and the individual, taking, as it were, a middle position between the first two approaches. This is the theory of action, the theory of exchange. Founder Sorokin. The fourth approach is the Marxist one. It is similar to the first one, however, it assumes the active intervention of sociology in the transformation and change of the surrounding world.

12. Causes, functions and subjects of social conflicts.

The cause of social conflict may be a mismatch of interests and goals of the corresponding social groups. There may also be a discrepancy between individual and social values. An equally important source of conflict is social inequality. But it, however irremovable, can have both positive value, as well as negative. Considering the role of conflict as an inevitable phenomenon, some functions can be distinguished. The first function is to defuse the psychological tension in the relations of the opposing sides. The second function is communicative and binding. Another positive function of the conflict is manifested in the fact that the conflict is able to play a consolidating role in society and even be the driving force of social change. The subject of social conflict is an individual or a social group capable of creating a conflict situation, i.e. firmly and relatively independently influence the course of the conflict in accordance with their interests, influence the behavior and position of others, cause certain changes in social relations .. The well-known specialist R. Dahrendorf attributed 3 types of social groups to the subjects of conflicts:

Primary groups (direct participants in the conflict), secondary groups (those who seek to be not involved in the conflict, but contribute to its incitement), third groups (forces interested in resolving the conflict).

13. Method of focus groups in social research. Focus group It is a method of collecting social info. Gives fairly reliable results without long-term preparation and significant costs for conducting.

Conducted among 8-12 strangers, but familiar with the issue under discussion. A focus group is a discussion of a specific problem, in which participants are encouraged to express their own thoughts, even disputes. To do this, leading questions are asked leading questions, quotes from the press, etc., which requires a pre-compiled program. But the leader must also be prepared for unexpected turns in the discussion, must be able to catch the moment when the conversation goes “to the left”, and return the conversation to its original direction.

Usually, when conducting a focus group, various equipment is used to record the words of the participants (video cameras, voice recorders, etc.). The information obtained is then interpreted by specialists, conclusions are drawn on their basis, the hypothesis is confirmed or refuted.

14. Processing, analysis and use of the results of social research.

The analysis ends with the preparation of a report on the results of the study. The report includes a description of all the main stages of the study. In administered the description of the problem situation is given, the object, subject, goals and objectives of the research are described. Theoretical section The report includes an analysis of publications on this issue, a theoretical analysis of the main concepts of research, a theoretical and working model with the necessary justifications and calculations. Procedural and methodological section includes justification for the choice of research method, instrument layouts, sample calculation and justification, and a brief description of the procedures for selecting observation units. Analytical section contains the results of the analysis of the received data. IN final section the results of the research are summed up and recommendations or technologies for managing the process under study are given in accordance with the purpose of the research. The report also includes a list of sources used and applications.

9. Subjective method in the sociology of Russian populism. P. Lavrov, N. Mikhailovsky.

The sociology of populism had a noticeable influence on the formation and development of general thought in Russia. P. Lavrov and N. Mikhailovsky were its most prominent representatives. They adhered to the so-called subjective method in sociology, which was comprehensively developed in their numerous works. In the development of the moral ideal, he saw "the only meaning of history" and "the only law of the historical grouping of events." Lavrov saw the main task of sociology in studying the motives of the activities of individuals and their moral ideals. At the same time, special attention was paid to the analysis of “solidary”, as he wrote, actions of people guided by their common interests. Sociology, according to Lavrov, studies and groups the recurring facts of solidarity between people and seeks to discover the laws of their solidarity actions. It sets itself a theoretical goal: to understand the forms of solidarity, as well as the conditions for its strengthening and weakening at different levels of people's development and forms of their coexistence. By solidarity, Lavrov understood "the consciousness that personal interest coincides with public interest." Solidarity is "communities of habits, interests, effects or beliefs". All this determines the similarity of behavior and activities of people. The main factors guiding the activities of people, he considered their internal motives, their ideals and will. The main engine of history, according to Lavrov, is the actions of critically thinking individuals, who constituted the advanced part of the intelligentsia. The development of the subjective method in sociology was continued by Mikhailovsky. He directly stated that "an objective point of view, which is obligatory for a natural scientist, is completely unsuitable for sociology," that this method is powerless in sociology, since it is not a dispassionate observer and interpreter of the phenomena that it investigates. He inevitably evaluates them, and not only from cognitive, but also from other, primarily moral positions, accepts or rejects them. Mikhailovsky adhered to the opinion about the existence of truth-truth and truth-justice. He develops the doctrine of the dual truth, which organically combines objective and subjective truth. Two main aspects of the subjective method in sociology can be pointed out. On the first hand, this method is aimed at taking into account as fully as possible the diverse thoughts and feelings of people, that “critical thought in humanity” about which Lavrov spoke. In addition, it is necessary to take into account the subjective position of the sociologist himself, who studies certain social phenomena. On the other hand, the subjective method is aimed at finding the optimal "forms of solidarity between people", i.e. e. such a social structure in which each individual, all classes and estates will be able to satisfy their diverse needs, freely act and develop. Both of these thinkers, outstanding representatives of Russian revolutionary populism, had a significant influence on the development of sociological thought in Russia.

16. Correlation of sociology with other general sciences.

Sociology, like many other sciences, is an excerpt. from philosophy, in the depths of which sociological knowledge has been accumulating for a long time. And even after proclaiming. sociology in the person of Comte and Durkheim its independent. as a genuine science of society, philosophy continued to play a prominent role in sociological research. Sociology of the "founding fathers" (see above) och. it is difficult to separate from social philosophy (further SF). Moreover, in a number of studies key problems of social life theoretical sociology is intertwined with the SF.

SF is a branch of philosophy devoted to meaning. qualitative originality of society in its difference from nature. It analyzes the problems of the meaning and purpose of beings. society, its genesis, fate and prospects, the direction of the driving forces and its development.

At SF and sociology och. a wide area of coincidence of the object of study. Their difference is clearly manifested. in the subject of research. To an even greater extent, the difference between m / y SF and sociology in the method of research. SF decides the societies. problems speculatively, guided by the definition. installations, developing on the basis of a chain of logical reflections.

At the sociologist. and psychologist. matching area. no less great. They are also worth different. psychology directed. for the study of the individual. "I", sociology - on the problems of interpersonal interaction - "We". //political science//

17. Sociology of "legal Marxism" (P. Struve, M. Tugan-Baranovsky).

This is a theoretical and ideological current late XIX- early XX was an expression of liberal bourgeois thought. Legal Marxists substantiated the nature of the development in Russia of the capitalist mode of production and the technical, economic and spiritual culture associated with it, they considered all this as a progressive process, and for proof they resorted to Marxist theory.

In the works "Critical Notes on the Question of economic development Russia” by P. Struve and “The Russian Factory in the Past and Present” by M. Tugan-Baranovsky substantiated the provisions on the nature of the operation of objective economic laws. It was about the development of the capitalist market in Russia, competition, the technical reorganization of production, the role of new social groups in society, primarily the bourgeoisie and the working class. Both these sociologists and economists took the side of "objective science" against the subjective method in sociology.

Later in their works, they no longer insist on the position of Marxism about the inevitable transition from capitalism to socialism, they increasingly critically evaluate the teachings of Marx, his materialistic understanding of history and economic theory.

Their philosophical and sociological views are more and more substantiated with the help of idealistic concepts. In the spirit of contemporary neo-Kantianism, which declares certain "supra-historical", spiritual values, primarily moral ones, to be fundamental and guiding principles in people's lives, they argue that the progress of society is entirely determined by the development of the cultural values of mankind.

Having rejected the "economic materialism" of Marx, above all his teaching on the decisive role of the mode of production in the development of society and on the law of the correspondence of people's production relations to the nature and level of development of their productive forces, the legal Marxists also rejected his teaching on the class struggle and social revolution.

M. Tugan-Baranovsky criticized many provisions of Marxism. First of all, he expressed his disagreement with the proposition about the decisive role of material production in the life of society. Initially, the economy really "dominated the life of society", but then it "falls under the dependence on other factors, primarily science." From this he concludes that "with the course of history, the social predominance of the economic moment must fall." Science and spiritual culture are increasingly coming to the fore, he wrote, “all forms of community life and even forms of economy become the product of the free consciousness of people, which contains its own immutable laws”

Tugan-Baranovsky rejected the broad interpretation of the class struggle, according to which it determines the content of all or almost all the needs and interests of people. Class in his understanding is a concept applicable only in the field of economics. It refers to groups of people united by a common economic interest. This concept explains something in the field of economic relations, but is unsuitable for explaining processes in other spheres of society, especially in science, culture, and spiritual life.

Being a major economist, Tugan-Baranovsky repeatedly expressed his disagreement with Marx's conclusions about the trend towards the impoverishment of the working class. Referring to real facts, he argued that the standard of living of the working class in the advanced capitalist countries was steadily rising, that the successes of capitalist industry were to the benefit of the workers. The growth of labor productivity, he wrote, also leads to an increase in the well-being of workers.

Tugan-Baranovsky preferred the civilized capitalist system to socialism. It is interesting that he was ready to develop the features of the latter in a socialist society, if such becomes a reality. In his opinion, the socialist economy, if ever established, "will not completely lose the spontaneous regulating forces of the market."

18. MOBILITY. Types and types of social mobility (horizontal, vertical, group and individual).

People are in constant motion, and society is in development. The totality of social movements of people in society, i.e. changes in their status, is called social mobility.

Between ascent and descent there is a certain asymmetry: everyone wants to go up and no one wants to go down the social ladder. Usually, ascent - a voluntary event A descent - forced.

Studies show that those with higher status prefer high positions for themselves and their children, but those with lower status want the same for themselves and their children. And so it turns out in human society: everyone is striving upward and no one is downward.

Exist two main types social mobility - intergenerational and intragenerational, and two main types , - vertical and horizontal. They, in turn, break down into subspecies And subtypes which are closely related to each other.

Intergenerational mobility assumes that children achieve a higher social position or fall to a lower level than their parents.

Intragenerational mobility takes place where the same individual, beyond comparison with the father, changes social positions several times throughout his life. Otherwise it is called social career

Vertical mobility implies a movement from one stratum (estate, class, caste) to another. Depending on the direction of movement, there are upward mobility (social rise, upward movement) and downward mobility (social descent, downward movement). Promotion is an example of upward mobility, dismissal, demolition is an example of downward mobility.

Horizontal mobility implies the transition of an individual from one social group to another, located at the same level (from the parental family to his own). Such movements occur without noticeable change social position in the vertical direction.

It is possible to propose a classification of social mobility according to other criteria. So, for example, they distinguish:

1) individual mobility moving down, up or horizontally occurs in a person independently of others;

2) group mobility, when movements occur collectively (eg during revolutions).

Individual mobility corresponds more to the status achieved, and group mobility to the assigned status.

Individual mobility occurs where and when the social significance of an entire class, estate, caste, rank, or category rises or falls. The October Revolution led to the rise of the Bolsheviks, who previously did not have a recognized high position. Brahmins became the highest caste as a result of a long and stubborn struggle, and earlier they were on an equal footing with the kshatriyas. IN Ancient Greece after the adoption of the constitution, most people were freed from slavery and climbed the social ladder, and many of their former masters went down.

19. Social status and its types.

The basis of social inequality in psychological terms is the social status of individuals, social groups, and strata.

Social status: 1) congenital and assigned 2) developed 3) earned

P. Sorokin emphasizes that status must be deserved and always proved by the assessment of others, which is very important for a person's self-esteem. Evaluation of others in one way or another confirms the status of a person, or vice versa, destroys.

Sociologists distinguish:

1)prescribed- imposed by society, regardless of the efforts and merits of the individual. It depends on the place of birth, ethnic group.

2) acquired (achieved) - is determined by the efforts of the person himself.

Allocate: - the natural status of a person - implies stable personality traits; - professional official - it fixes the socio-economic and production status of a person (accountant, teacher).

A person can have several statuses at once - integral status. Social status is expressed by complex connections between the subjects of social relations.

20. Public opinion: concept, essence. Reasons for the formation and manifestation of public opinion.

Public opinion is a set of judgments and assessments that characterize the consolidated attitude of the mass consciousness to the most significant and updated problems, events and facts of the economy, politics, culture, and public life.

In this regard, the following hypotheses can be made:

firstly, the phenomenon under consideration is a concrete conclusion of a certain community of people on certain objects, a kind of result of the mental activity of people;

secondly, the selection criteria in the formation of public opinion are public interests and needs;

thirdly, the mass judgments of people have varying degrees of objectivity (truth). This is because opinions can be formed on the basis of both scientific knowledge and false views and erroneous ideas. In the event of a lack of objective information, people compensate for it with rumors, intuition, etc. Public opinion that does not have a solid scientific foundation as its basis may be erroneous;

fourthly, this phenomenon acts as a specific motivating force that regulates people's behavior and their practical activities. Acting as a "material" regulating force, it refers to the active, that is, the part of the public consciousness that has mastered the masses. Public opinion in this case not only reflects a certain level of people's knowledge on a particular issue, but also captures their active attitude towards the object of opinion. This phenomenon exists in the minds of people; and is expressed publicly, acting, in turn, as a more powerful means of social influence;

fifthly, public opinion is a specific product of people's interaction, a kind of combination of opinions, leveled, changed, forming a new quality, not reducible to a simple sum of individual opinions.

CONCLUSION: not any group, collective opinion becomes or is public, but only that which meets the criteria - social interest, debatability, competence. And its spokesmen are the classes, the social strata, the commonwealth of classes, the people. Hence, the opinion can be classified as individual; group, or general; public opinion, or public opinion.

Stages of public opinion: 1. Perception of the reformation (objective, subjective, tendentious, etc.) at the level of individuals. 2. Conclusions and assessments of the individual - based on existing knowledge, experience, ability to analyze, level of awareness. 3. Exchange of available information, conclusions, discussions with other people. 4. On this basis, the formation of a certain opinion of a small group of people. 5. Exchange between small groups and the formation of the opinion of the social stratum. 6. The emergence of public opinion.

It is possible to distinguish the main stages of the formation and functioning of public opinion: 1. Is born 2. Reaches a certain degree of development 3. "Dies" or realizes itself in specific manifestations of life.

21. Ethnoconflict as a kind of social conflict. Causes…

Ethno-national conflicts are organized political actions, riots, separatist actions and civil wars in which the confrontation takes place along the line of "ethnic communities". Most often, this kind of conflict occurs between a minority and a dominant ethnic group that controls power and resources in the state. There are several theories to explain the causes of ethno-national conflicts, which were formulated on the basis of research in various regions of the world. One of the dominant ones is the sociological approach, which is based on the analysis of the ethnic parameters of social groups (classes, strata, socio-professional groups, etc.) and reveals the phenomenon of usurpation of certain privileged social niches by representatives of one group to the detriment of another and social discrimination based on ethnic or racial.

Interethnic conflicts are an extreme exacerbation of contradictions between nations that arise in the course of solving political, territorial, economic, linguistic, and cultural problems. We are talking about conflicts between entire ethnic groups and their individual representatives. They can arise and operate at the socio-psychological and ideological level of the national-ethnic consciousness of peoples, as well as at the level of activity of national-state institutions of legislative and executive power. Conflicts have their causes, often rooted in the historically established conditions of peoples' lives. Sometimes they are associated with a fair fight for their rights. It is necessary to strive for the resolution of conflicts in a democratic way. The ability of a multinational society to foresee and resolve conflicts in a civilized way is an important indicator of its civic maturity and democracy. This is facilitated by the legal regulation of interethnic relations, which is the most important sphere of activity of the rule of law.

22. The theory of classes and class relations in sociology.

In Marxism, the class is used as the most general concept, which characterizes the place of individuals and social groups in the social system, for example, everything in the system of social production. The main criterion for separating a class is the ownership of the means of production. All class systems are characterized by the presence of two main classes - the exploiter and the exploited. The relationship between them is antagonistic. The class struggle is a decisive factor in social change. The main classes of capitalist society are the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Marx K. singled out the concepts of "class in itself" - this is a class whose members have not yet realized their common class interests, and "class for itself" - a class that has developed class self-consciousness. Thus, in Marxism, classes are not just descriptive concepts, but real social communities and real social forces that can change society. The Marxist tradition of class analysis remains one of the most influential today.

In a slave-owning society - slaves and slave-owners, under feudalism - serfs and feudal lords, in a capitalist society - the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. Contradictions between classes lead to class struggle, which Marxist theory considered the driving force behind the development of society, since the interests of classes are incompatible, and they can only be resolved social revolution. Marxism viewed history from the standpoint of the class struggle.

Weberian class theory is an alternative to Marxism. Weber M. considered classes as social groups, which stand out in the economic hierarchical structure, i.e., like Marx, Weber's classes are "economic classes". However, the attitude to property in the Weberian concept becomes a particular criterion, the main role given to differences in market positions. Belonging to a class generates differences in life chances in the commodity market and the labor market. class, according to Weber, is a category of people who share similar "opportunities of life", eg the whole prospect of social mobility, the possibility of promotion to higher statuses. One of the bases of a market position is capital, the other is qualification and education. Accordingly, Weber singled out four "economic classes" - the class of owners; the class of intellectuals, administrators and managers; the petty-bourgeois class of small businessmen and proprietors; working class. According to Weber, class conflict can arise from m. any of these groups, and not just m. workers and capitalists. In addition to economic factors, Weber singled out other factors leading to social inequality. In particular, he noted power and prestige as the most important. Therefore, in addition to "economic classes" and the class structure, there may be other hierarchical structures and social groups in society that stand out in these hierarchical structures.

There is a tendency in contemporary sociology to overestimate the centrality of class. Class and class type of social stratification are seen as having limited historical significance - only in modern industrial society, primarily capitalist, the division into classes constitutes the main basis of social organization and the central source of the dynamics of society. A post-industrial society is often defined as "post-class", emphasizing the fact that classes cease to determine the type of social stratification characteristic of it, and a high level of social mobility reduces the influence of class affiliation on an individual's career. However, despite calls by some theorists to do away with classes, both versions of class analysis continue to exist and develop.

23. Psychological direction in Russian sociology (De Roberti, Kareev, Petrazhitsky)

Psychologist. direction in sociology Ros. took shape in the 1890s. In its psychologist. sociology De Roberti proceeded from the fact that all societies. yavl. pre-yut is the result of the activity of people, which is directed by their inherent psychic. factors, their desires, emotions, way of thinking, will, etc. Therefore, sociology, as an experimental science about the study of d/b, is closely connected with psychology, the subject of which is mental activities of people defining their social. activity. Main De Roberti saw the goal of sociology in the knowledge of the laws of the psychic. interactions." Speaking of mental human interaction, Roberti, pointed out the meaning of both individual, so collective psyche. The latter appears as a set of collectivities. perceptions, feelings, moods, way of thinking of certain social. groups, certain masses of people and national communities. Beings. contribution to the justification of the role and importance of the psychologist. factors in the development of the society were introduced by the historian and sociologist Kareev. He pointed to the important the importance of psychology in explaining societies. phenomena, because the latter always have psychological. basis. After all, they act as a product of people's activities, in the result of which their feelings, will and ideas about something, their instincts, intuition and way of thinking are embodied. Kareev paid attention to 3 main. side of spirits. being of a person, namely: on his mind, feelings and will. He noted that in the activities and behavior of people, and therefore, in their entire societies. life, an important role is played by the intellectual., emotional. and the strong-willed side of their spirit. peace. Kareev believed that mental people interaction underpin their societies. development, because they are determined by economics, watered. and other interactions, the result of which is the development of all spheres of life on-va and its social. institutions.

24. SOCIALIZATION OF THE PERSON. Problems of social maturity of the individual.

Socialization is the process of assimilation by an individual of the norms and rules of behavior accepted in society. This is a two-way process, which includes, on the one hand, the assimilation of social experience by an individual by entering the social environment, into the system of connections and relations, on the other hand, the process of active reproduction of the principles of the system of social relations through vigorous activity.

The main stages of socialization: pre-labor (childhood, youth), labor ( mature age), post-labor (old age).

Components of the process of socialization: training (acquisition of new knowledge), education (the impact of the spiritual sphere on behavior), maturation and maturation (the processes of mental and physiological formation of the body).

Agents and institutions of socialization. Agents are specific people responsible for teaching cultural norms and for mastering social roles. The institutions of socialization are institutions of social education.

Many psychologists and sociologists emphasize that socialization continues throughout life and argue that the socialization of adults differs from the socialization of children. The socialization of adults rather changes external behavior, while the socialization of children forms value orientations. Socialization of adults is designed to help a person acquire certain skills, socialization in childhood has more to do with the motivation of behavior.

Deviation in socialization is usually called deviation: forms of negative behavior of individuals, the sphere of moral vices, deviation from the norms of morality and law. The main forms of deviant behavior include offenses, drunkenness, drug addiction, prostitution, and suicide. The fight against such manifestations is carried out by the social. control.

Social control is a special mechanism for regulating behavior and maintaining public order. Includes social norms and sanctions. Norms are instructions on how to behave in society. Sanctions are means of punishing or encouraging people to comply with social norms. Social prescriptions are a prohibition or permission to do something, addressed to an individual or group in any form (oral or written, formal or informal). Social norms exist either in the form of prescriptions, requirements, wishes. Sanctions can be formal or informal, positive or negative. Formal positive sanctions - public approval from the organization. Informal positive sanctions - public approval coming from informal persons (praise). Social control is external and internal. External - a set of institutions and mechanisms that guarantee compliance with generally accepted norms and laws. Internal (self-control) - the individual himself controls his behavior, coordinating it with existing norms (conscience, self-consciousness). There are agents and institutions of social control. Agents are persons specially trained and paid for performing supervisory functions (police, social workers, etc.). Institutions - the court, the army, education, labor collective, media, political parties, government. Thus, norms and sanctions are interconnected. and are included in the social control.

25. The concept of social pluralism M.M. Kovalevsky

M. Kovalevsky approached socialism as science, and not as a concept of people's ideals. He proceeds from the fact that for social gia the main thing is truth-truth. Ideas of the natural and act. the nature of history. process, as well as social continuity are important aspects of the evolutionist concept TO., according to which the society more or less smoothly (evolutionarily) passes from one of its states to others. In the same way, the department develops. areas of society. life and dec. social institutions. The evolution of the state building he associated with a number of factors of society. life, incl. with the evolution of households and “forms of economy. life”, with the development of polit. rel. classes and other social. groups, with the evolution watered. ideas and the general progress of culture. Important role in social TO. plays historical comparative. method. Comparing the development of peoples different. countries and eras, m / o to discover some general laws of their history. evolution Historical comparison. the method makes it possible to reveal both these laws and specific ones. features in the development of different. peoples and their cultures. TO. psychological school in social-gy. He considered imitation as an organic manifestation of personal and social. psychology of people and therefore as an important factor in their societies. life. He believed that "the foundations of social science cannot lie outside of psychology." Positive rel. to many sociologists. directions and schools, the desire to understand them and discover connections between them, the willingness to apply their teachings in the analysis of certain societies. phenomena - another manifestation sociological pluralism TO. Every the direction in social-gyi in its own way shows the importance of certain factors in the development of the society, whether it be biological, demographic, economic, political. or psychologist. factor. Based on the main installations of sociological. pluralism TO. developed theory of societies. progress. in his theory of society. progress TO. He proceeded from the fact that all peoples go through the same stages of development, but not simultaneously.

26. Analysis of documents as a method of collecting social. info-ii

Under document imply certain sources containing information about the social. facts and phenomena of society. life of functioning and developing in the society. Analysis of the documents opens up the opportunity for the sociologist to see in a reflected form many aspects of the social. really. Documents usually contain rich and capacious information about this action. The form in which the information is recorded depends on the purposes for which the m/b is used this type of document and by what method it is successfully analyzed m/b. According to the form of fixing information divided by: 1. letters. doc-you; 2. statistical data; 3. iconographic docking (cinema, photodocs); 4. phonetic docs.Under traditional, classical analysis “understands all the diversity of the mental. operations, directed on the integration of the information contained in the document with the definition. tz adopted by the researcher in each particular case. Such an analysis is aimed at fully revealing their content. The weakness of tradition analysis of documents subjectivism. The desire to overcome the subjectivity of traditions. analysis gave rise to the development formalized(quantitative) document analysis method, or content analysis. Content analysis, or scientific analysis of the content of a document is a research method used in the most diverse. disciplines, areas of the humanities. knowledge. At its birth, content analysis was used to study text-based newspapers. materials. This method is often used by dec. special services: up to 80% of the most secret information is obtained with its help. A sociologist. newspaper research. texts, agreements, protocols, treaties, etc. act as an object of analysis. Pragmatic content analysis models focus on those features of the text that directly or indirectly testify to the positions or intentions of the author. Methodological principles define contain. interpretation of the studied phenomena. A tech. techniques perform the same role as other sociological methods. research, eg statist. observation or survey. Techn. tricks- This is a social gathering sociologist. information.

27. The working class in modern Russian society

Working class- this is a layer of us., which participates in the production process or the service sector, they do not own production, real estate that brings profit, and receive only salary for their work (locksmith, turner, salesman etc.).

The working class of Russia is currently socially heterogeneous and is more of a collection of separate layers of workers, rather than a single and monolithic class, as it was in Soviet times. There are processes of reduction in the number of workers, growth of unemployment, transition of workers to the private and cooperative sectors. State-owned enterprises stop, close, become bankrupt, and if they continue to work, then the shops are empty, 1-2 workers work and, with rare exceptions, they do not receive profit. decline domestic production adversely affects the entire Russian economy.

28. SOCIAL STRATIFICATION IN MODERN RUSSIA.

The processes of stratification in modern Russian society can be understood and explained in their entirety only by taking into account the historically operating mechanisms of layer formation in it. These mechanisms were largely determined by the nature of Russian culture, and at the stage of its formation - by the very place of settlement of the East Slavic tribes between Western European civilization and the civilizations of the East. Thus, the geographical position of the country, the length and low quality of communications, the sparsely located urban centers in the nodes of communications, their vulnerability - all this affected the rate of accumulation, methods of preserving the socio-cultural fund, influenced specific forms of redistribution of social energy and cultural resources. Consideration should be given to the impact on stratification and foreign cultural experience.

At present, in a historically short period of time, rich and poor strata have become sharply polarized in society. The most destabilizing factor for stratification processes is the growth in the number of marginal strata: the unemployed, people without a specific occupation and place of residence, refugees, and members of criminal gangs. The destruction of the usual forms of organization of work, life, as well as cultural norms and values causes the emergence of a large number of people who have lost their former social status, and therefore despaired, abandoned the moral principles of behavior.

The historical development of the Russian state preserved in society the military-imperial, at times repressive, nature of social ties with extremely weakly expressed institutions of private property, elected representative bodies, legal protection of social groups and individuals. At the same time, this does not mean that the identified stratification features are capable of being produced in a rigid form at each new stage in the development of Russian society. A certain part of them certainly continues to be viable and will be reproduced in the near future. However, the dynamics of stratification in recent decades indicates that in the current conditions there are grounds for both the preservation of state property and redistribution mechanisms, and for the restoration of small private property, as well as associated (group) property, for the revival of market relations. On the basis of the changed correlation of social forces and the high educational level of the population, plebiscite-selective procedures for the formation of state and local governments can also take root; there is every reason to hope for an increase in the role of the legislative and legal system of social regulation.

29. Bureaucracy as a social. layer

Upper layer includes, first of all, the real ruling stratum, acting as the main subject of reforms. They are united by the fact of being in power and the ability to directly influence the reform processes. The top layer is approx. 0,5 % the entire Russian society. Also included are the so-called "new Russians", which amount to approximately 4,5 % society.

The upper layer includes the top of the state bureaucracy, most of the generals, large landowners, heads of industrial corporations, financial institutions, large and successful entrepreneurs. A third of the representatives of this group are not older than 30 years old, the proportion of women is less than a quarter, the proportion of non-Russians is one and a half times higher than the national average. IN last years noticeable aging of this layer is noted, which indicates its closure within its boundaries. The level of education is very high, although not much higher than that of the middle class. The incomes of this stratum, in contrast to the incomes of the rest, grow faster than prices, i.e., further accumulation of wealth takes place here. The material position of this stratum is not only higher, it is qualitatively different from that of the others.

30. Poll as a method of sociological research. Poll types. Possibilities and limitations of the survey method.

A sociological survey is a method of collecting primary sociological information about the object under study by asking questions to a specific group of people called respondents. The basis of a sociological survey is indirect (questionnaire) or non-mediated (interview) socio-psychological communication between a sociologist and a respondent by registering answers to a system of questions arising from the purpose and objectives of the study.

Its main purpose is to obtain sociological information about the state of public, group, collective and individual opinions, as well as facts, events and assessments related to the life of the respondents. According to some scientists, almost 90% of all empirical information is collected with its help. The popularity of this method is due to a number of fairly good reasons. Firstly, there is a great historical tradition behind the sociological survey method, secondly, the survey method is relatively simple, and thirdly, the interrogation method has a certain universality, which makes it possible to obtain information both about the objective facts of social reality and about the subjective world of a person. Fourth, the survey method can be effectively applied when conducting both large-scale studies. Fifth, the sociological survey method is very convenient for quantitative processing of the sociological information obtained with its help.

Classification of types of sociological survey

31. Family as a social institution.

Family - the most ancient, the very first social. The institution also arose in the conditions of the formation of society. At the first stages of the development of society, relations between a woman and a man, older and younger generations were regulated by tribal and tribal traditions and customs, which were based on religious and moral ideas. With the advent of the state, regulation family relations acquired a legal character. The legal registration of marriage imposed certain obligations not only on the spouses, but also on the state that sanctioned their union. From now on, social control was carried out not only by public opinion, but also by the state. The family has several definitions from different sciences and approaches. Its typical and most important features are:

· small group of people,

unites these people - the relationship of marriage or consanguinity (parents, children, brothers, sisters),

The family as a social the institution performs certain social functions (the main ones are reproductive, the socialization of children, the maintenance of children) and society therefore endows the family with the means to perform these functions. Such a means, for example, is the institution of marriage, which arose later, and the institution of divorce. Families, depending on the representation of different generations in them, are nuclear and extended.

To understand the family as a social institution great importance has an analysis of role relationships in the family. The family role is one of the types of social roles of a person in society. Family roles are determined by the place and functions of an individual in a family group and are divided into marital (wife, husband), parental mother, father, children (son, daughter, brother, sister), intergenerational and intragenerational (grandfather, grandmother, elder, younger) and etc. Role relationships in the family may be characterized by role agreement or role conflict. In the modern family, there is a process of weakening the family as a social institution, a change in its social functions. The family is losing its position in the socialization of individuals, in the organization of leisure and other functions. Sociologists distinguish three main types of family: 1. Traditional. Assumes existence under one roof for at least three generations, the role of leader is given to the older man. 2. Non-traditional family. It preserves the tradition of masculine leadership and the distinction between men's and women's duties, but without sufficient objective economic grounds for that. Sociologists call this type EXPLOITIVE. 3. Egalitarian family. A family of this type is characterized by: a) a fair, proportional division of household duties, the interchangeability of spouses; b) discussion of the main problems and joint adoption of important decisions for the family; c) the emotional intensity of the relationship.

32. Social functions of the family.

Reproductive is the reproduction in children of the number of parents.

Educational - for the normal full development of the child, the family is vital, and it cannot be replaced by any other institutions and public institutions.

Economic and economic - covers various aspects of family relations: housekeeping, the preparation and use of the family budget, the organization of family consumption, the problem of distribution of domestic labor.

Recreational - it should become an oasis of calm, confidence, create an important sense of security and psychological comfort for a person, provide emotional support and maintain overall vitality.

33. Ethnic sociology its content.

Ethnic sociology, in the form in which it was presented in the last decade of the 20th century, began to develop on domestic soil in the late 1960s, which was facilitated by the revival of sociology after the 20th Congress of the CPSU.

Ethnosociology was defined as a frontier scientific discipline that studies social processes in different ethnic environments and ethnic processes in social groups. Ethnic peoples in their social diversity were at the center of her study.

The subject of ethnosociology is the study of the social aspects of the development and functioning of ethnic groups, their identity, interests and forms of self-organization, the patterns of their collective behavior, the interactions of ethnic groups, the relationships of the individual included in these groups, and the social environment.

The field of ethno-sociological study is extremely wide. These are the ethnic features of social changes, including trends in professional orientations, the pace of social movements in ethnic groups, intra-republican and inter-republican migration in the Russian Federation, and interstate migration in post-Soviet space; ethnic specificity of intra-family relations; trends in the use of the Russian language and the languages of the titular peoples of the republics and diasporas in various social groups; correlation of modern and traditional culture in social groups; the role of traditionalism in political life and social behavior, modernization processes, post-industrial development; intercultural interactions, problems of intercultural boundaries, the role of religion in cultural distance, ethnic identity, auto- and heterostereotypes, intra-ethnic solidarity; ethnic interests and attitudes towards interethnic communication, interethnic orientations, tolerance and intolerance, problems of nationalism, social and socio-psychological foundations of interethnic conflicts. In essence, ethnosociology studies the ethnic specifics of all socially significant areas of society, considering them from the point of view of sociological criteria and using the methodology of sociological research.

34. Culture, its main elements. The concept and types of subculture.

CULTURE is a way of spiritual mastery of reality based on the identification of values, which is an integral system of logically connected, stable ideas, assessments, orientations, norms, techniques, embodied in patterns of activity, objectified in material-objective and sign-symbolic forms, transmitted from generation to generation. generation in the process of socialization.

Basic elements of culture:

knowledge, beliefs

Belief is a certain spiritual state, a property that is characterized by the genetic indivisibility of the intellectual-rational, sensual-emotional and volitional components. This is a sensual experience of knowledge as personally significant, reliable, filled with current, energy of will. Beliefs can be related to natural objects as well as social ones.

Values

Values appear as:

a) the desired state of social connections, the content of ideas, artistic form, etc., which is preferable for a given social object;

b) criterion for evaluating real phenomena;

c) they determine the meaning of purposeful activity;

d) regulate social interactions;

e) internally motivate to activity.

Ideology

Values can be described, interpreted, argued in the form of a strict, logically justified doctrine. In this case, we are dealing with ideology.

A subculture is a set of symbols, beliefs, values, norms, patterns of behavior that distinguish a particular community or any social group. Each community creates its own subculture. Subculture does not deny the universal culture, but at the same time it has its own specific differences. These differences are associated with the characteristics of the life of certain communities. It is possible to single out national, confessional, professional subcultures of organizations, social groups, etc.

It is important for sociology to determine whether these subcultures mix, coexist and tolerate each other, or whether there are cultural conflicts. Often cultural minorities make special efforts to maintain their identity, protect their values and survive in an environment dominated by majority cultures that influence and even suppress all other cultures.

35. “The Understanding Sociology of M. Weber”

Important component of this theory is the concept of ideal types. It's kind of an ideal. model of what is most useful to a person, what objectively meets his interests in modern times. his era. In this relation as an ideal. m / t types to act moral., polit., religious. values and the attitudes of behavior and activities of people arising from them, the rules and norms of their behavior, as well as the traditions of social. communication.

Ideal. Weber's types characterize, as it were, the essence of the optimal. public states - comp. power, interpersonal communication, individual. and groups. consciousness, etc. Because of this, they act as a kind of criteria, on the basis of which it is necessary to make changes in spirits., Watered. and material. life of people. Weber singled out a trace. types of social actions : Purposeful. action- this is when a person clearly foresees the goal of the action and the means of achieving it, and also takes into account the possible reaction of other people to their actions. The criterion for the diet is success. Value-rational. action the conscious faith in the ethical, religious value of a certain behavior is performed. affective action occurs through the effects, i.e. unconscious psychological impulses and feelings. traditional action implemented h / z habit. In the real behavior of people, most often all of these types of actions are present. Each of them is distinguished by its motivation, and often by the content and mechanism for the implementation of social. actions. Weber proceeded from the fact that in the historical the process increases the degree rationality social actions. This can be seen in the development of capitalism: a rational way of doing business, management in the field of economics, politics, science, culture; way of thinking of people. Weber considers rights to be the embodiment of rationality. state-of, the functioning of which is based on the rational. the interaction of the interests of citizens, their subordination to the law, as well as the generally significant watered. and morality. values.

36. The peasantry in the social. the structure of society. Farming development problems

Peasantry- this layer is divided into socialized. cross-in private enterprise

At present, the peasantry consists of collective farms, state farms, and a small layer of farmers (their number is 1% of the population), who build their enterprises on leased land, using hired labor. Sometimes the farmers work themselves, with the help of their wives and children. Farming is a more adapted social group of rural society to the conditions of the capitalist market than the collective farm and state farm peasantry. If the average size of a farm plot in Russia is 50 hectares, then advanced farmers have 200-250 hectares each (which is comparable to Canada or the USA). Farming has been able to survive, above all, in areas where a profitable commercial economy is possible, where production is profitable at current prices for agricultural products. But on the territory of Bashkortostan, collective farms still fully justify themselves (although, of course, not all of them). They receive the latest imported equipment, they are helped by the government, subsidies are provided. The main issue that is painful for Russia is the ownership of land, which is now in the process of being resolved and, hopefully, for an improvement in the situation in agriculture.

37. Family and marriage. Problems of stability of family and marriage relations

A family is a small group based on family ties and regulating relations between husband and wife, parents and children. Marriage can be defined as a socially sanctioned, stable form of sexual relations. The instability of marriage and family, manifested in the growth in the number of divorces, is explained by the influence of urbanization and the intensive migration of the population caused by it, the scientific and technological revolution, the reason for the socio-economic, cultural, and religious nature. Many factors stabilizing the family from the outside have disappeared: the economic dependence of women on their spouses, the legal, religious, and moral prohibition of divorce.

Several levels of marital relationships on the basis of which conflicts can occur:

Psychophysiological: disharmony of sexual life.

Psychological: an unhealthy climate is created in the family, manifested in quarrels, mutual nit-picking, irritability.

Social-role level. Sipotomas - incorrect uneven distribution of family and household workload.

Sociocultural. misunderstanding between spouses.

38. Soc. research: concept, types, main. stages

Sociologist. research. is a process of cognition, in which a sociologist of 2 levels is manifested. knowledge: theoretical and methodological. and empirical.. It combines deductive and inductive methods of analysis. Sociologist. research. beginning with its preparation: thinking over the goals, program, plan, determining the means, timing, methods of processing information, etc. - 1st stage. 2nd stage- collection of primary sociologist. information. These are collected in various non-aggregated information form - researcher's notes, extracts from docs, department. respondents' answers, etc. 3rd stage- preparation collected during the sociology. research. (questionnaire survey, interview, content analysis, etc.) information for processing on a computer, drawing up a processing program, processing on a computer. 4th stage- analysis of the processed information, preparation of scientific. report on the results of the study, formulation of conclusions and recommendations for the customer, the subject of management. Difference. 3 main kind of sociologist. research .:1. Reconnaissance. (aerobatic) research. - the simplest kind of sociologist. analysis, allowing to decide is limited. tasks. In fact, there is a “run-in” of the tools (method. docs): questionnaires, interview forms, questionnaires, cards for studying docs, etc. In the course of it, goals, hypotheses, tasks, questions, and their formulation are specified. 2. Describe. research.- more complex view sociologist. analysis. It is usually carried out when the object of analysis is a large collection, differing in variety. character-mi, eg, labor. cereal team. enterprises where people work. professions, gender, age, work experience, etc. 3 analytical research. It not only describes the elements of the phenomenon or process under study, but also allows you to find out the reasons underlying it. Analytical research. impossible without a detailed program and polished tools.

39. Entrepreneurs as a social stratum

The smallest group in our society is emerging bourgeoisie, entrepreneurs, so called "new Russians", whose number is not determined, but is approximately equal to only 2-3 percent of the population. Modern entrepreneurs do not want to develop production, revive domestic industry and take care of the state and fellow citizens, they are concerned about only one thing - making a profit, money and their interests are mercantile. They prefer to engage in barter transactions, cashing out, speaking their language, creating, as a result, huge capital out of thin air. They do not spend money on charity, science and art, preferring to relax in the Canary Islands and other prestigious resorts. "New Russians" can be divided into several groups:

1. Managers - co-owners joint-stock companies who run them for hire but have a majority stake. 2. Hired managers who manage public and private enterprises for wages. 3. Entrepreneurs - owners, mainly small enterprises and firms that personally manage them. 4. Self-employed workers who are engaged in small business with their own funds. 5. Businessmen - managers - hired directors of small and medium-sized enterprises who combine managerial work with their own business. 6. Semi-entrepreneurs who combine employment (non-managerial) work with different types entrepreneurship.

40. Intelligentsia in the social structure of Russian society

The intelligentsia (lat. intelligentia, intellegentia - understanding, cognitive power, knowledge, from intelligens, intellegens - smart, understanding, knowledgeable, thinking) is a social stratum of people mainly engaged in mental, creative work, development and dissemination of culture. The word intelligentsia appeared in the Russian and Polish languages in the first half of the 19th century and was a kind of alternative to the word nobility.

An intellectual is a representative of the stratum of the intelligentsia. Unlike an intellectual, an intellectual is not necessarily engaged in mental work.

As the Russian sociologist G. Sillaste points out, the Russian intelligentsia at the end of the 20th century stratified into three strata (from "stratum" - layer):

"higher intelligentsia" - people of creative professions, developing science, technology, culture, humanitarian disciplines. There is a high proportion of women among intellectuals. The overwhelming majority of representatives of this stratum are employed in the social and spiritual spheres, a minority - in industry (technical intelligentsia);

"mass intelligentsia" - doctors, teachers, engineers, journalists, designers, technologists, agronomists and other specialists. The vast majority are women. Many representatives of the stratum work in industries social sphere(health care, education), somewhat less (up to 40%) - in industry, the rest in agriculture or trade. This stratum of the intelligentsia is most susceptible to unemployment;

"semi-intelligentsia" - technicians, paramedics, nurses, assistants, referents, laboratory assistants. This is the most feminized group of all strata of the intelligentsia: there are 5 women per man. In terms of living standards, the majority of this stratum lives below the poverty line.

41. Marginalization as a phenomenon of modern society.

The main sign of marginalization is the rupture of social ties, and in the classical case, economic, social and spiritual ties are successively torn. Economic ties are torn first and foremost restored. Spiritual ties are restored the slowest of all. Lead to increased marginalization:

general instability,

destruction of the old way of life,

rejection of the usual system of values,

· unemployment,

the refugees

People humble themselves

With the deterioration of their financial situation,

With his indignity

addiction,

futility of existence.

A person who is fighting for survival and competing with others in this struggle gradually focuses all his energy and efforts on satisfying primary (material) needs. He has no strength left for anything else.

The massive violation of even the simplest norms of human communication is evidence of a general decline in the level of people's culture.

The primitivization of society, as it were, justifies various forms of social pathology, ceases not only to fight against them, but also to condemn them.

Apathy, which breeds cynicism, is becoming more and more widespread.

The main social source of the marginalization of society is the growing unemployment in its overt and covert forms.

A significant impact on the marginalization of society will be exerted by migration, which is undergoing significant changes due to the expansion of the scale of forced migration, the increased outflow of “non-indigenous peoples” from regions with a difficult ethno-political situation. The situation of forced migrants is characterized not only by the rupture of former social ties, but also by the loss of their social status and property losses.

The flow of people leaving their native places is also increasing as a result of growing socio-economic instability. Their social arrangement seems to be even more difficult than that of the Russian-speaking population: not only language difficulties affect, but also the level of qualification, attachment to other traditions and customs. What are the prospects for the very marginalization of society?

· Under the influence of the changes taking place in society, caused by market reforms, part of the marginalized will continue to move downward, that is, sink to the social bottom (lumpenize). Homeless people, alcoholics, parasites, prostitutes, etc. a growing layer of lumpen.

In other words, this is the part of people who failed (or did not want to) adapt to new market conditions, and, having suffered a “social collapse”, ceased to occupy an intermediate position.

It was as if she finally "decided".

· The second part (much larger) of the marginalized gradually finds ways to adapt to new realities, acquires a new social status (and with it the relative stability of their being), new social ties and social qualities. They fill new niches in the social structure of society, begin to play a more active, independent role in public life.

Of course, the marginalization of society is not the only factor in the strengthening of deviant behavior. But this factor is becoming dominant precisely in the current conditions.

42. Theories of social stratification and social mobility.

The foundations of the modern approach to the study of social stratification were laid by M. Weber (1864-1920) - a German sociologist, historian, economist, whose works largely determined the direction of development of social and scientific knowledge in the 20th century. One of the founders (in 1909) and board member of the German Sociological Society. In 1918 - professor of political economy in Vienna. In 1919, he was an adviser to the German delegation at the Versailles negotiations. From June 1919 he was a professor of political economy in Munich, who considered the social structure of society as a multidimensional system in which, along with classes and the property relations that give rise to them, an important place belongs to status and power.

Considering the subject of sociology, one can find a close connection between the three fundamental concepts of sociology - social structure, social composition and social stratification. The structure can be expressed through a set of statuses and likened it to empty cells of a honeycomb. It is located, as it were, in a horizontal plane, but is created by the social division of labor. In a primitive society there are few statuses and a low level of division of labor, in a modern society there are many statuses and a high level of organization of the division of labor.

But no matter how many statuses there are, in the social structure they are equal and functionally related to each other. But now we have filled the empty cells with people, each status has turned into a large social group. The totality of statuses gave us a new concept - the social composition of the population. And here the groups are equal to each other, they are also located horizontally. Indeed, in terms of social composition, all Russians, women, engineers, non-party people and housewives are equal.

However, we know that in real life the inequality of people plays a huge role. Inequality is the criterion by which we can place some groups above or below others. The social composition turns into social stratification - a set of social strata located in a vertical order: the poor, the wealthy, the rich. To use a physical analogy, the social composition is a disorderly collection of iron filings. But then they put a magnet, and they all lined up in a clear order. Stratification is a certain "oriented" composition of the population. social stratification is the central theme of sociology. It explains social stratification into the poor, the wealthy and the rich.

According to the evolutionary theory of stratification, as culture becomes more complex and develops, a situation occurs in which no individual can master all aspects of social activity, there is a division of labor and specialization of activity. Some activities turn out to be more important, requiring long-term preparation and appropriate remuneration, while others are less important and therefore more massive, easily replaceable.

The concepts of stratification, in contrast to the Marxist idea of classes and the construction of a classless society, do not postulate social equality, on the contrary, they consider inequality as a natural state of society, so the strata not only differ in their criteria, but are also placed in a rigid system of subordination of some layers to others, privileged the position of the higher and the subordinate position of the lower. In a dosed form, even the idea of some social contradictions is allowed, which are neutralized by the possibilities of social mobility of the vertical type, i.e. it is assumed that individual talented people can move from the lower strata to the higher strata, as well as vice versa, when inactive people who occupy places in the upper strata of society due to the social status of their parents can go bankrupt and end up in the lowest strata of the social structure.

Thus, the concepts of the social stratum, stratification and social mobility, supplementing the concepts of class and class structure of society, concretize the general idea of the structure of society and detail the analysis of social processes within certain economic and socio-political formations.

43. The method of peer review in social research.

The method of expert assessments allows you to identify information that is hidden from specialists, representatives of the business community, sellers, buyers, etc.

Expert judgments expressed in quantitative form and interpreted as evaluative ones are called expert judgments (collective or individual). The identification of individual expert assessments is called an expert survey, and the set of procedures necessary to obtain collective expert assessments, including an expert survey, is called an examination.

The working group forms the problem, determines the purpose and objectives of the examination, develops a procedure, forms an expert group, conducts a survey of experts, processes the received estimates, analyzes them, draws conclusions, and makes recommendations.

The survey is the main stage of the joint work of the organizers of the examination and direct experts. Depending on the nature of the problem, its goals, the organizers of the examination choose survey methods

Poll happens:

a) individual; b) group; c) personal; d) correspondence; e) oral; e) written.

A) Among the methods of individual survey, two types of examination are most common: interviewing and questioning.

Conducting an expert assessment by the interview method requires the expert to be able to quickly give high-quality answers to the questions posed. The following forms of interview organization can be distinguished: free conversation, question-answer, cross-examination. The interview allows you to get information that is difficult to get with a questionnaire. Disadvantages: a strong influence of the interviewer on the expert's answers, little time for deep reflection on the answers, a lot of time is spent on interviewing the entire composition of experts.

Most of the expert methods are based on a questionnaire with which the necessary information is collected. Questionnaire - a set of questions, each of which is logically related to the main task of the examination. The content of the questionnaire should be as clear as possible to the interviewee. A questionnaire survey involves a rigidly fixed order, content and form of questions, a clear indication of the form of the answer.

In addition to the questionnaires, the experts should be given explanatory note, containing information about the goals of the examination, the tasks of interviewing the objects of examination, the necessary organizational information and instructions for filling out the questionnaires.

B) The methods of collective expertise involve obtaining a generalized opinion during a joint discussion of the problem posed by a group of experts who are in direct contact. These methods include

1. Meeting - a method of open discussion, or as it is also called the "method of commissions".

2. The method of "brainstorming".

3. Method of "court".

4. Method "Delphi".

The "method of commissions" involves holding a general discussion in order to develop a common opinion on the range of issues under discussion.

The essence of the "brainstorming" method is to separate the solution of two tasks: generating new ideas and evaluating the proposed ideas.

The method of "court" is based on the fact that the organization of the work of a team of experts is carried out in accordance with the rules of the trial. "Defendant" is the analyzed problem.

The "Delphi" method is a series of sequential procedures aimed at forming a group opinion. This method is characterized by:

1) anonymity of surveys;

2) regulated feedback, carried out by conducting how many rounds of the survey;

3) group response obtained using statistical methods.

C) The personal (face-to-face) method of questioning means the procedure during which the organizer makes direct contact with the expert while preparing answers to the questions of the questionnaire.

D) An absentee survey is usually carried out by sending the questionnaire to the expert by mail. The main advantages of a remote survey are its simplicity and low cost. However, some questions may be misinterpreted by the examiner, and therefore the reliability of the data obtained may be lower than in face-to-face interviews.

The ultimate goal of expertise is to draw a picture of the probable future: to identify opportunities to be exploited and potential dangers to be avoided.

44. Types and forms of social conflicts in modern Russia.

Social conflicts in modern Russian society are organically linked to its transitional state and the contradictions that underlie conflicts. The roots of some of them lie in the past, but they received their main aggravation in the process of transition to market relations.

Conflicts in modern conditions are characterized by severity and frequent use of violence. Based on the deepening of the crisis state of society, leading to clashes of various forces and communities, social contradictions are aggravated and social conflicts become their result.

Conflicts are formed in various spheres of society and are usually referred to as political, socio-economic, spiritual, national, etc. All of them belong to the category of social conflict, which is understood as any kind of struggle and confrontation between communities and social forces.

1. Socio-political conflicts.

Three aspects of the problem can be traced political power in the conflicts of Russian society:

1.conflicts in the power itself, the confrontation between various political forces for the possession of power;

2. the role of power in conflicts in other areas of society, which somehow affect the foundations of the existence of power itself;

3. the role of state power in many cases as an intermediary.

The main conflicts in the sphere of power in modern conditions are as follows:

1.conflicts between branches of government (legislative, executive, judicial);

2.conflicts within the parliament;

3.conflicts between political parties and movements;

4.conflicts between the links of the administrative apparatus, etc.

These conflicts can develop and proceed either calmly, smoothed out, or they can flare up to the form of fierce fights. A potential source of a fierce struggle for power is new social groups claiming a higher position in political life, the possession of material goods and power. choose the wrong course, which will be impossible to correct.

2. Socio-economic conflicts.

Serious prerequisites for conflicts contain socio-economic relations between medium and small entrepreneurs and power structures. Reasons: corruption; the uncertainty of the functions of many civil servants; ambiguous interpretation of laws, huge taxes.

A factor contributing to the aggravation of the situation is the multiple difference in income between the richest and the poorest. We are on the verge of a social explosion.

Professions such as a teacher and a doctor are becoming unprestigious in our country due to beggarly wages, and these professions are the most expensive in terms of education. Young people, having received an education, which is still very good in our country, leave for the West and raise the economy of these countries, and not Russia.

In order to lab their business, large entrepreneurs go to power structures, deputies.

3. Interethnic, interethnic conflicts.

These conflicts, in their structure, in the nature and severity of the confrontation, in the complexity of their regulation and resolution, are the most difficult among social conflicts. To social contradictions, linguistic and cultural problems, historical memory is added, which deepens the conflict.

The collapse of the USSR, it would seem, resolved the contradictions between nations. But due to the fact that states arose as a result of a private, top decision of a group of political leaders, inter-ethnic contradictions intensified, conflicts flared up with renewed vigor. (Karabakh, Ossetia, Abkhazia, Transnistria, Chechnya, etc.)

Russia multinational country where more than 120 peoples live. In many of the republics within the Russian Federation, the "indigenous population" is a minority. Only in 5 republics its number exceeds 50% (Chuvashia, Tuva, Komi, Chechnya, North Ossetia). The peculiarity of interethnic conflicts in Russia is due both to the difference in the ratio of the Russian and non-Russian population, and mainly to the fact that the national psychology of Russians and the awakened national self-consciousness can destabilize the socio-political situation and exacerbate interethnic contradictions. For the first time in history, the moral well-being of the Russian people, their self-consciousness, are experiencing such infringement and fear for the future, when every other, even a small nation, can appear before it in the form of an enemy.

In recent years, the aggressive-offensive mood has intensified in the Russian national consciousness. It is fed by Russian refugees from other former republics of the USSR. Several national-democratic parties of the fascist type have also been created, which propagate that Russia is only for Russians and arrange conflicts with representatives of other nations, especially the former Soviet southern republics and immigrants from African countries.

45. Integral sociology P. A. Sorokina

Human personality is formed under the influence of a number of factors - cosmic, biological, socio-psychological - but above all sociocultural. These characteristics are not innate, but acquired. The integral nature of human personality is formed in the process of people interacting with each other. The whole surrounding reality: 1) empiric-sensual form (comprehended with the help of the senses) 2) rational-mental (reason through logic) 3) supersensible-super-rational (brilliantly creative). Chel is not only an empirical observer, but also a creator. Truth, beauty, goodness - 3 components of the integral supersyst. On the basis of these elements is the development of mankind. Existing is also ideological and sensual supersist, replacing each other friend throughout civilization. Revolutions and, as a rule, wars, accelerate the disintegration of sensual society. Values and ideals are usually illusory. Cultivation of enmity, malice. The outcome depends on whether these negative forces or a part of the people who are roaring for moral self-perfection and religion will win.

Social stratification- differentiation of people into classes and layers, which is expressed in an uneven distribution of rights and privileges. There are economy, gender and profession. She changes all the time.

46. Social institutions and organizations. Types and their functions.

The process is formed by various types of social activities as social institutions - institutionalization. Prerequisites: 1) the need 2) the creation and development of the necessary organizational structures 3) conditions and opportunities, corresponding to the socialization of people 4) the integration of a new type of social activity into the structure of general relations. A social institution is a set of persons and is established, carrying out a specific social function. Economy, gender, cult, morality, art, ideology, family, science, education, etc. They are distinguished by a stable internal structure, integration of elements, diversity and dynamism of functions, the presence of a goal in their activities and specific functions, ensuring the achievement of this goals; set of social statuses and roles. Parsons: 4 functional premises of AGIL are related to the activities of social institutions. Social institutions need: specific social norms, regulation of people's behavior within the framework of this institution; mat means and conditions; clear definition of social roles; integration into the structure of society-va; independence of the performance of functions from the personal characteristics of the performer. The family is an institution that reflects all spheres and relations of society.

4. Method of peer review in social research

The expert assessment method consists in assessing the competence of the opinions expressed by the respondents. To do this, an expert's questionnaire is compiled, which mainly includes closed questions, which are identical in structure to the questions formulated in the respondent's questionnaire. The expert's task is to express an unbiased, comprehensively balanced assessment on the issues raised, taking into account the objective situation and the factors of interest to the researcher. An expert is a competent person who has deep knowledge about the subject or object of research. Central among the criteria for selecting experts is their competence. There is a concept - "forecast". It most clearly shows the difference between an expert assessment and information obtained as a result of a mass survey. It consists in striving for consistency, uniformity of opinions and assessments expressed by experts. The PS has developed a number of techniques for interviewing experts used to obtain a predictive estimate. At the same time, it is appropriate to note that some of the technical and methodological techniques widely used in mass surveys lose their significance when interviewing such a specific audience as experts. As a rule, mass surveys are anonymous. In expert surveys, this makes no sense, because experts must be fully aware of the tasks that are solved in the course of the study with their help.

Theory of social stratification and social mobility

Ros. about-in consists of 4 social. layers: the top layer includes the actual ruling layer, which acts as the main layer. subject of reforms. Top. layer - 0.5% of the total grew. about-va. Also here m / o include “new. Russians" - 4.5% of the total. This layer includes the top of the state. bureaucracy, most of the generals, croup. landowners, industrial leaders. corporations, finance. institutions, large entrepreneurs. The third will present. this group is not older than 30 years. In the last years, a noticeable aging of this layer is noted, which indicates that it is closed within its boundaries. The level of education is very high, although not much higher than that of the middle class. The middle layer is the germ of the middle layer in the Western sense of the term. Most will submit. has no capital, no level of professionalism, no high. social prestige. While this layer is too small and not m / t to serve as a guarantor of the social. stability. In the social rel. its composition is heterogeneous and includes: the lower business layer - small business -44%; qualified specialists - pros -37%; the middle link of employees (military, non-production workers) -19%. Avg. layer - 10% of the total grew. about-va. Basic social. layer - main part of the intel-tion (specialists), assistants to specialists, tech. personnel, workers of mass professions of trade and service. 75% of the total grew. about-va. The bottom layer (marginals) - low activity potential and inability to adapt to tough socio-economics. conv. transition. period: elderly., those who do not have professions, constant. occupations, places of residence, unemployed, refugees. Signs: bottom. personal and family income, low level of images., lack of permanent work.

In modern grew up ob-ve 5 main. layers (strata): 1. administrative elite(ruling) - people who are in power (for example, at the federal level - this is the president and his entourage, government, at the regional level - governors, their administrations, on the city. - heads of administrations and the composition of these administrations etc.); 2. working class- this is a layer of us., which participates in the production process or the service sector, they do not own production, real estate that brings profit, and receive only salary for their work (locksmith, turner, salesman etc.). 3. intelligentsia- all of us. humanitarian. specialties and professions (doctors, teachers, workers of art, culture). 4. new bourgeoisie- this is a stratum of the population, which has in its personal property the means of production, turnover. Wed-va, movable and immovable property that participates in the process of production or profit (entrepreneurs, bankers); 5. peasantry- this layer is divided into socialized. cross-in are employees of enterprises collective. forms of ownership: OJSC, CJSC and private enterprise(farm) cross-in - farmers have in their personal. property Wed-va pro-va, the land belongs to the state-woo, and they are rented in the long run. rent.

Questions on sociology.

1. Sociology as a science: the structure and levels of sociological knowledge

2. Functions of sociological science.

3. Nation as a socio-ethnic community

4.G. Spencer and his organic theory of society.

5. Observation as a method of sociological research.

6.Anarchist direction in Russian sociology of the late XIX - early XX centuries.

7.O. Comte is the founder of sociological science.

8. Program and plan in sociological research

9.E. Durktheim and his theory of the evolutionary development of society.

10. General sociological theory of K. Marx and F. Engels and modernity

11. Modern Western sociology: main directions.

12. Causes, functions and subjects of social conflicts.

13. The method of "focus - groups" in social research.

14. Processing, analysis and use of the results of sociological research.

15. Subjective direction in Russian sociology (P.L. Lavrov, N.K. Mikhailovsky).

16. Correlation of sociology with other social sciences (social philosophy, political science and history).

17. Sociology of "legal Marxism" (P. Struve, M. Tugan - Baranovsky).

18. Social mobility and its varieties

19. Social status and its types

20. Public opinion: concept, essence. Reasons for the formation and manifestation of public opinion.

21. Ethnic conflict as a kind of social conflict. Causes of their occurrence and ways of settlement.

22. The theory of classes and class relations in sociology.

23. Psychological trend in Russian sociology (E.V. De Roberti, N.I. Kareev, L.I. Petrazhitsky).

24. Socialization of the individual. Problems of social maturity of the individual

25. The concept of social pluralism M. M. Kovalevsky

26. Analysis of documents as a method of collecting sociological information.

27. The working class in modern Russian society, its social appearance.

28. Social stratification and social mobility in modern Russian society

29. Bureaucracy as a social stratum

30. Poll as the main type of sociological research. Its Varieties Possibilities and Limitations of the Interrogative Method

31. Family as a social institution

32. Social functions of the family

33. Ethnic sociology its content

34. Culture, its main elements. The concept and types of subculture

35. “Understanding” sociology of M.Weber

36. The peasantry in the social structure of Russian society. Problems of development of farming.

37. Family and marriage in modern society. Problems of stability of family and marriage relations

38. Sociological research: concept, types, main stages.

39. Entrepreneurs as a social stratum

40. Intelligentsia in the social structure of Russian society

41. Marginalization as a phenomenon of modern society.

42. Theory of social stratification

43. Method of peer review in sociological research

44. Types and forms of social conflicts in modern Russia

45. Integral sociology P.A. Sorokina

46. Social institutions and organizations. Types and their functions

If necessary, the limits can be calculated on a computer using mathematical packages MathCad, Maple and others. To calculate in Maple, there is a command

limit(expr,x=val,dir) ,

where expr is the expression for which the limit is calculated (function or sequence), x=val is the value of the point for which the limit is calculated, and dir is an optional parameter that can take the following values: left (left limit), right (right limit) .

Recall that loading the Maple package automatically loads a new worksheet that prompts you for the > command. You can write any algebraic expression on the command line, written according to the rules accepted in Maple. If you put the symbol ; at the end of the expression, then when you press the Enter key or the button with an exclamation point on the toolbar, the expression will be processed by the program, and the result will be displayed on the monitor.

V Example 1. Use Maple to find the limit 1 2x + 3 I (Example 2a, Section 5.5).

x->-oo 2x + 3/

We enter the command

>limit(((2*x-l)/(2*x+3))~(4*x+l) ,x=infinity); ,

press the Enter key and get the answer: e-8. A

V Example 2. Find the limit lim -9 .

>limit(n*sin(n!)/(n~2+l),n=infinity); . Answer: 0.A

V Example 3. Find one-sided limits lim - ,

x-^-o i + 5іIх

and lim -r (see p. 75).

>limit(l/(l+5~(l/x)),x=0,left); .

>limit(l/(l+5~(l/x)),x=0,right); .

Answer: 0. A

To calculate the sum of a series, use the command

>sum(expr,var=varl..var2); ,

where expr is an expression depending on the summation variable var, a varl. .var2 - summation limits.

V Example 4. Find the sum of the series ^ -- (see p. 53).

sum(3/(lCTn),n=l..infinity); .

Answer: -. A 3

V Example 5. Find the sum of a geometric series

q< 1 (см. с. 53). Решение.

>sum(q~n),q=0..infinity); .

In mathematics, it is not the formulas that should be remembered, but the processes of thinking.

Application of functions and limits in sociology. Cheat sheet: Sociology and its functions Peer review method in social research

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