To obtain the necessary knowledge in science, various methods and techniques are used. First, let's find out what are called research methods and techniques.

The method of scientific research is a generalized way scientific knowledge one group or another of events.

The methods of scientific research include the theoretical and experimental study of relevant phenomena, their knowledge on a logical or intuitive basis, quantitative or qualitative analysis of the data obtained, the organization and conduct of experiments, etc. In turn, if we consider separately the method of empirical (experimental) study of psychological phenomena, then it includes many private methods, which include, for example, observation, questioning, document analysis, psychological tests, and many others. It follows that the methods can be general and particular, and in general represent a complex, interconnected system of scientific research methods that can be used in different sciences to solve many problems.

In contrast, research methodology is a particular technique or method of studying a particular phenomenon, which has a limited scope and, as a rule, does not go beyond a separate science or even a separate psychological phenomenon. The difference between the methods and techniques of scientific research lies in the following. Research methods in most cases are not directly used to obtain specific information about the phenomena being studied. For this, private research methods representing them are used.

Strictly speaking, such a division of research methods and techniques is very conditional,

exists mainly only in the field of general reasoning related to

methodology of scientific knowledge. In individual sciences, as a rule, it is not strictly observed. There, the concepts of "method" and "technique" of research are often used interchangeably. To a certain extent, this also applies to psychology. It is relatively rare in the scientific and educational psychological literature, where methods of cognition of mental phenomena are considered, methods and methods of research are presented and discussed separately.

Following a similar tradition, in this textbook we will also not strictly and consistently distinguish between them, using these two concepts depending on the situation in different ways: in some cases separately - as research methods and techniques, in others - using the corresponding concepts as synonyms. .

The phenomena studied in psychology are so complex and peculiar, so difficult for scientific research, that throughout the history of the existence of psychology as a science, scientists representing it have been concerned with finding methods that would allow them to obtain objective, reliable and reliable knowledge about these phenomena. The success of psychology at all times directly depended on the quality of the research methods used in it.

Psychologists tried to develop these methods on their own, and turned to other sciences for help, borrowed from them everything that could be useful in the study and knowledge of the phenomena of interest to them. Over time, many methods of research, drawn from various sciences, turned out to be accumulated in psychology. These are the methods of philosophy, history, sociology, mathematics, physics, physiology, medicine, biology and a number of others. In addition, psychologists have created many of their own, original methods of research, including varieties of observation used only in psychology, psychological tests, objective methods for studying mental phenomena, and a special psychological experiment.

The research methods available to modern science can be divided into groups using various bases. Such grounds can be, for example, the sciences from which the relevant research methods, methods of preparing, organizing and conducting scientific research, procedures for collecting and processing empirical material are borrowed.

If we divide research methods according to the sciences where they first arose and from which they were borrowed by psychologists, then the research methods used in psychology can be divided into the following main groups: philosophical, historical, medical, biological, physical, engineering, mathematical, etc.

Among the philosophical research methods are general, abstract (speculative) logical reasoning, where general philosophical concepts and categories are used. The same group of methods can include those that represent a theoretical analysis of the problem, based on philosophy, and not on specific scientific psychological concepts or data related to psychology. With the help of such methods, different points of view are compared at the level general theories. Sometimes such research methods are called metapsychological, because they go beyond psychology and rise to the level of philosophical generalizations.

Historical methods are methods of research using which the history of the emergence and development of a phenomenon is studied, one hundred early, historically existing forms are clarified, the dependence of this phenomenon on certain historical facts, events, conditions.

Similar methods are widely used, for example, in cultural-historical psychology. L. S. Vygotsky, studying the process of formation of higher mental functions in a person, used the historical method of their analysis, i.e. linked the formation and development of higher mental functions with the cultural and historical conditions of human existence.

Medical research methods are methods borrowed from medicine and used both in modern medicine and in psychology.

For example, in clinical psychology, a psychological diagnosis is often made, similar to a medical diagnosis, the etymology (origin) of a mental disorder (like a disease in medicine) is clarified. Psychotherapy is also used in medicine and in practical psychology.

The biological methods of research include the evolutionary method, in the use of which one or another mental phenomenon is correlated with the general evolution of living forms.

For example, this method is used to study mental development animals at different levels of the evolutionary ladder. At one time, this method was used, for example, by A. N. Leontiev, who presented the process of the emergence and development of the psyche in animals. Another example of the application of biological research methods in psychology is the twin method, developed and first used in genetics, then transferred to differential psychology and then to psychogenetics.

Concerning physical methods research, then, firstly, they include physical instruments that record and evaluate physiological processes with which mental phenomena are associated (for example, human sensations), and secondly, methods for accurately changing the corresponding processes adopted in physics.

Methods of this kind are widely used, for example, in psychophysics and in the process of studying human cognitive processes, such as vision and hearing.

Engineering methods of research are widely used in areas of psychology, in which scientists have to design and test devices and devices designed to conduct psychological research, develop and verify recommendations regarding the interaction between man and technology.

For example, in engineering, space psychology, labor psychology and safety psychology. They can also include the testing and evaluation of certain engineering and psychological solutions, for example, the design of instrument panels or control panels technological processes taking into account the psychological capabilities of a person.

Mathematical methods are methods borrowed, respectively, from mathematics. These are, first of all, the methods of mathematical analysis, probability theory, mathematical statistics, linear algebra, higher geometry and a number of other branches of modern mathematics.

Of course, the bulk of the research methods used in modern psychology are methods developed by psychologists themselves. Examples of proper psychological research methods are tests, different kinds observations of mental phenomena, meaningful analysis of texts, interpretation of dreams, and many others.

From the point of view of organizing and conducting scientific research, methods can be divided into the following types: preparatory, organizational, information collection methods, processing and interpretation of the received data.

preparatory called research methods, used in the preparation of scientific research.

These include, for example, the choice and clarification of the research topic, familiarity with the content of publications on the chosen topic in order to assess the degree of its development, determine the solved and unsolved problems.

Organizational called research methods, which provide the direct organization and conduct of the relevant research.

These include clarifying the goals and objectives of the study, formulating the hypotheses tested in it, selecting and testing the methods that will be used in the ongoing study to test the proposed hypotheses, determining the sample of subjects on whom the study will be conducted, clarifying the plan and program of the upcoming study. The same group of methods includes those used in the study itself. This is, for example, the choice of the form of research (theoretical or empirical, descriptive or explanatory, experimental or non-experimental), the establishment of a procedure for the practical application of selected diagnostic tools, the choice of methods for fixing the data obtained during the study, the use of certain special ones during the study, for example , technical means, etc.

Information collection methods are a variety of methods by which a scientist collects information of interest to him in the course of his research. These include, in particular, all psychodiagnostic methods used in psychology: observations, surveys, objective methods, psychological tests, experimental methods.

TO methods of processing the received information methods of quantitative or qualitative analysis of the obtained data can be attributed.

An important point in the final part of the study may be the determination of the method of presenting the obtained data (table, graphic, pictorial, text, etc.). In this regard, a subgroup of methods for representing the obtained data can be singled out separately.

Interpretation methods- these are ways of explaining the data obtained in terms of the goals, objectives of the study, the hypotheses tested in it, in particular, solving the question of how the data obtained during the study correspond to all this.

The same group of methods includes the choice of the logic of reasoning in order to confirm or refute the hypotheses tested in the study, as well as presenting the results of these reasoning in a generalized form in the conclusions. Finally, this group of methods can also include consideration of the data obtained from the point of view of a particular scientific theory.

According to the method of obtaining (and processing) empirical data, the methods of psychological research can be divided into the following groups.

• 1. Methods of observation.
• 2. Survey methods.
• 3. Objective or physiological methods.
• 4. Tests.
• 5. Experimental methods.
• 6. Mathematical methods.

Observation methods are based on obtaining knowledge about human psychology or by direct observation of the mental phenomena themselves in the form in which they are presented in the human mind, or by observing those signs in which the corresponding phenomena manifest themselves.

In the first case, conclusions about mental phenomena are made on the basis of an analysis of how the studied mental phenomena directly appear in the mind of the person experiencing them. In the second case, conclusions about human psychology are made on the basis of an analysis of the external manifestations of human psychology, for example, his statements, actions, reactions and deeds.

The group of observation methods includes introspection, introspection, outside surveillance, free surveillance, standardized surveillance, overt surveillance, covert surveillance, and included surveillance.

Introspection is the direct or direct observation of mental phenomena at the moment when they occur and are represented in the mind of a person. For example, we can talk about a person's observation of the course of his thoughts, his feelings, images, experiences, etc. Immediately after the end of introspection or in the process of introspection, a person describes the phenomena he observes.

Those who at one time introduced the method of introspection into scientific circulation and used it in scientific research, cited the following arguments in support of this method.

• 1. Through introspection, one can directly establish causal relationships between mental phenomena that arise in the mind of a person.
• 2. In introspection, the studied phenomena are presented in the so-called "pure", not distorted form.
• 3. Special and lengthy training in the method of introspection, as well as the requirements and restrictions imposed on its practical use, can make this method of scientific knowledge of mental phenomena quite strict.

Indeed, the practical use of the method of introspection in experimental psychological research late XIX- the beginning of the XX century. accompanied, for example, by the following requirements:

• - introspection should be aimed at highlighting the simplest elements of consciousness, i.e. sensations and elementary experiences (feelings);
• - those who use this method should avoid in their verbal reports terms that describe objects external to the content of consciousness. One can speak only about the sensations and experiences associated with these objects (caused by them).

Introspection as a method of direct study of mental phenomena has long been considered the only method by which it was possible to investigate them. This method was proposed as early as the 17th century. R. Descartes, but gained distribution and recognition only in the 18th century, when psychology began to turn into an experimental science. In the second half of the XIX century. introspection becomes the main method of research in experimental psychology and remains the only method of cognition of mental phenomena until the beginning of the 20th century.

A comparative review of the history of various sciences with which psychology maintained close ties indicates that the method of introspection was originally borrowed by psychologists from the physics and physiology of the sense organs, where it was used to study the perception of light, sounds and other sensory stimuli by a person. In psychology, this method was first actively used in the Leipzig laboratory of W. Wundt, and from the very beginning with the strictest observance of the basic rules for its application for experimental purposes.

Throughout the history of psychology, the method of introspection has been repeatedly criticized both by philosophers involved in the problem of finding and substantiating methods of cognition of mental phenomena, and by psychologists, for example, behaviorists, who believed that this method is not scientific at all. The philosopher O. Comte, for example, argued that with the help of introspection it is impossible to obtain true scientific knowledge about the psyche, because real introspection in the form in which it was used in practice is not at all such - a method of direct and immediate knowledge of mental phenomena and Moreover, in principle, it is impossible. O. Comte, for example, wrote and said that an attempt to turn introspection into a method of psychological cognition is “an attempt by the eye to see oneself” or “a person’s attempt to look out the window to look from the side as he himself passes along the street.”

A person, according to Comte, either really experiences something in this moment, or observes what is happening in itself. In the first case, there is actually no one to observe, since the subject of observation is absorbed in his experience; in the second case, there is nothing to observe, since the subject, tuned in to observation, at this time does not experience anything other than his own mood.

Introspection, according to Comte, is impossible because it is difficult to imagine the bifurcation of a person into two parts: the subject of knowledge and the object of observation. Human consciousness, using the term "note of consciousness" introduced later by the American psychologist W. James, is a single and continuously ongoing process. The assumption of the possibility of introspection in the above sense means the recognition of the existence of at least two different "streams of consciousness", i.e. again, its actual bifurcation.

Psychologists who noted the difficulties and unreliability of introspection put forward the following considerations against it. Firstly, observation of the content of one's own consciousness is not so much introspection as retrospection, not so much a direct perception of what is happening at a given moment in consciousness as a restoration in memory of what was previously perceived.

Secondly, in introspection, the object of observation is assumed to be stable, independent of the process of observation. By observing this or that phenomenon of consciousness, we thereby change the very state of consciousness, and therefore the possibility is not ruled out that with the help of introspection we make an imaginary discovery, i.e. we “discover” for ourselves what we ourselves shortly before brought into the content of our consciousness as a result of focusing attention on it.

Thirdly, introspection is practically impossible to apply where the unconscious, emotions or personality of a person becomes the subject of psychological study. The unconscious, in principle, is inaccessible to introspection by definition. Emotions upon direct observation of them, especially when it comes to affects, quickly disappear, change or turn into something other than what they were at the beginning (before introspection).

Another strong objection raised against introspection was the following. If introspection is recognized as the only source of reliable knowledge about the human psyche, then the very existence of such branches of scientific psychology as child psychology or animal psychology, where the use of the method of introspection is limited or even impossible, is questioned. If, however, strictly follow the methodology of introspection, then, using it, the psychologist will be able to conduct experiments only on himself, and the psyche of other people will be practically inaccessible to him.

There is no convincing justification for the assumption from which introspection comes - that the psyche of all people is the same, and therefore, observing what is happening in the mind of one person, a scientist can draw confident conclusions about the processes taking place in the minds of other people. This assumption seems doubtful even when it comes to studying the cognitive processes of people with the help of introspection. Different people perceive the world differently, pay attention to different things, think differently and understand what is happening differently, and each of them conveys all this in words in an individually unique way. Even more individuality (and subjectivism) is found in the introspective study of personality. It is well known that, firstly, most of a person's personal properties are not represented in his sensations and experiences; secondly, almost all people perceive and evaluate themselves as individuals, not as they really are, as they are perceived and evaluated by the people around them.

Nevertheless, despite the reasoned and convincing criticism of introspection, modern scientists recognize that where a verbal description of a person’s direct experiences can serve as an additional source of knowledge about his psyche, the use of introspection is possible and appropriate, for example, in the field of psychology of consciousness, sensations and perception. , but together with other, objective research methods. In this regard, modern cognitive psychology has partially restored the rights of the method of introspection, recognizing, however, limited opportunities its application in the field of studying the processes associated with memory, imagination and human thinking.

Self-observation is, unlike introspection, a person's observation of himself from the outside, as if from the outside, i.e. observation of their states, actions, statements and deeds. Such an observation will not provide direct knowledge about the human psyche, but provides material for introspection, carried out with the aim of self-knowledge of human psychology. For example, having noticed one or another reaction to the actions or statements of another person, a person can draw a certain conclusion about his mental state at the present time or about his attitude towards the interlocutor.

Surveillance is the observation of outward signs in the behavior of another person, such in which mental phenomena characteristic of him can manifest themselves or are naturally associated with them. This, for example, is the observation of the active actions of a person or his physical (physiological) reactions to external influences. This type of observation can be carried out with the naked eye or with the use of special devices that record the corresponding actions or reactions, for example, audio or video technical recording tools.

open call it surveillance, in which a person knows that he is being observed at a given time. Hidden is observation in which the observed does not know that he is being observed.

The possibilities of conducting covert surveillance in psychology are limited both by existing laws protecting the secrets of people's personal lives, and by the code of ethics of a professional psychologist. For an adult without his personal consent in most cases, with the exception of those stipulated by law or the norms of the code professional ethics psychologist, it is impossible to conduct covert surveillance, especially in cases where the results of surveillance can be used to harm a person. When deciding to conduct such an observation, a psychologist in all cases must be guided by at least the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted in many countries of the world and approved in our country.

free called surveillance, in which issues related to observation are resolved in the course of the observation itself. This includes the following questions: what to observe, how to observe, how to record the results of observation, how to interpret them (explain, draw conclusions based on them).

Standardized call it surveillance, in which all these questions have previously known, standard answers, and observation is carried out according to a previously thought out plan or program.

included call it surveillance, in which the observer himself participates in the process over which he is observing. For example, a psychologist, together with children, can take part in a game, and at the same time monitor the behavior of children in the game, drawing conclusions about their psychological characteristics.

Survey methods called such research methods in which the information necessary for conclusions about human psychology is obtained on the basis of studying their answers to certain questions. In turn, the survey methods are divided into oral And written, open And closed, free And standardized.

In an oral survey, questions are asked directly to the subject himself, and the answers to them are received orally. In a written survey, either written questions are used, or written answers to them, or both taken together.

Free and standardized surveys are similar to free and standardized observation, with the only difference being that in such a survey, the procedure for organizing and conducting the survey is, respectively, free or standardized.

During the survey, special questionnaires are often used. The basis of a psychological questionnaire is a purposefully selected set of questions or judgments that the subject must answer or somehow react to. The questions contained in the psychological questionnaire can be asked to the subject both orally and in writing, but most often they are offered in writing (in the form of a form with questions). A psychological questionnaire is a relatively simple and convenient method of psychological research, used both in scientific and practical psychology. Its advantages are ease of use, the speed of obtaining answers from the subject and the relative ease of processing them. However, this research method also has significant drawbacks, for example, the fact that the answers of the subjects to the questions asked of them cannot always be trusted. This is due not only to the fact that many people do not quite sincerely answer the questions they are asked, but also to the fact that far from all of their psychological properties a person is actually aware, wants or can correctly evaluate.

Physiological methods are called such methods of studying mental phenomena that involve the use of a variety of physiological reactions of the body to obtain information about mental phenomena associated with them. When physiological research methods are used in practice, special physical devices are also often used, which make it possible to record and process data on the corresponding physiological processes and reactions of the body. These include, for example, devices that record and process the electrical activity of the brain, activity muscular system, activity of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, galvanic skin and a number of other physiological reactions.

At first, when such methods began to be used in psychology, they were called objective methods for studying mental phenomena and were opposed to the so-called subjective methods, which, for example, included observation and questioning. It should, however, be borne in mind that the term "objective" can mean "true", "authentic", "correct", and the word "subjective" can be interpreted as "biased", "incorrect" or "erroneous".

Such an understanding of the objective and subjective when comparing psychological and physiological research methods is not entirely correct. All scientifically substantiated methods of psychological research, tested for validity and reliability, even if they are based on observations or surveys (they are subjective in the sense of the word that a person will give assessments to the studied phenomena when using them), allow obtaining quite reliable information about the studied mental phenomena. At the same time, many objective physiological research methods are often inferior to subjective psychological methods in terms of obtaining reliable and reliable information about the studied phenomena with their help. When using physiological research methods, it is assumed that the corresponding reactions of the body are unambiguously associated with the studied mental phenomena, that their analysis allows one to draw unambiguous and reliable conclusions about the studied phenomena. This is far from true. For example, when registering the electrical activity of the brain or the galvanic skin reaction, we cannot always say with certainty what specific psychological phenomenon (or phenomena) they are actually associated with.

One of the widely used physiological methods for studying mental phenomena is called method of implanted electrodes. It is a method, with the help of electrodes are inserted into certain structures of the animal's brain, and the activity of the brain recorded with their help is used for indirect conclusions about the mental processes occurring in it. For example, using this method, the electrical activity of individual neurons can be recorded and studied, from the surface of which an electrical potential is recorded using an appropriate microelectrode. When using the method of implanted electrodes, microelectrodes are brought close to the individual electrodes of a particular brain structure, and the activity of this neuron is displayed through a special amplifier of electrical potentials on the corresponding device using other recording means.

Another physiological research method is based on recording the electrical activity of the brain, on obtaining and analyzing a general picture of hundred electrical activity, called an electroencephalogram. An electroencephalogram is a record of the electrical activity of the brain as a whole or its individual, fairly large blocks.

In the electroencephalogram, the following main rhythmic fluctuations in the electrical activity of the brain are visually (visually) distinguished: 1) alpha rhythm (it consists of waves of enough correct form with an oscillation frequency of 8 to 13 Hz and an amplitude of 50-100 μV). This rhythm is usually observed in a state of rest, meditation, with a calm, monotonous activity. When a person's attention is turned on to something, a desynchronization reaction of the alpha rhythm occurs, and it is replaced by low-amplitude, high-frequency activity (activation reaction, awakening). The alpha rhythm is most pronounced in the occipital regions of the cerebral cortex, and it is absent in people blind from birth; 2) beta rhythm. These are oscillations with a frequency of 14-30 Hz and an amplitude of 5-30 μV. This rhythm is most pronounced in the frontal areas of the cerebral cortex; 3) gamma rhythm. It represents oscillations in the frequency range above 30 Hz, and its amplitude does not exceed 15 μV. This rhythm is observed when solving problems that require maximum concentration of attention; 4) theta rhythm with a frequency of 4-8 Hz and an amplitude of 20 to 100 μV or more; 5) delta rhythm. This is a rhythm with a frequency of 1-4 Hz and an amplitude of hundreds of microvolts or more. It usually appears during sleep, and is also associated with the working memory of a person working in the waking state. There are other rhythmic fluctuations in electrical activity recorded in the electroencephalogram at different localizations of leads of electrical potentials: mu-rhythm, kappa-rhythm, gamma-rhythm and others. By the nature of the rhythmic electromagnetic activity of the cerebral cortex, one can indirectly judge the processes taking place in it, including psychological ones.

A number of physiological research methods, including galvanic skin reaction, are used in the so-called "lie detector". "lie detector" (his scientific name- polygraph) is a special device (together with an appropriate psychological test), with which you can determine whether a person is telling the truth or deceiving, consciously or unconsciously hiding the true state of things. The mechanism of action of the "lie detector" is based on the fact that, speaking a lie, a person usually experiences increased stress, which involuntarily manifests itself in a hundred physiological reactions to keywords- incentives that are directly or indirectly related to the truth they hide. This tension or excitement can manifest itself in a change in reaction time for such keywords compared to relatively neutral words.

With the help of a “lie detector”, in addition, individual physiological reactions associated with a person’s emotional experiences about significant events associated with perceived words are assessed quite subtly. In this case, we are talking about fixing such reactions with the help of sufficiently sensitive physical instruments. They register even the smallest changes in heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rhythm, galvanic skin reaction.

The name “lie detector”, however, can be misleading and is very conditional, since in fact the corresponding technique (device) only captures and highlights events and objects that are especially significant for a person against the background of other events and objects according to specific reactions to related words (see "lie detector (polygraph)" in the glossary).

Thanks to the development of electronic technology in the second half of the XX century. it became possible to significantly improve the objective methods of studying mental phenomena, using modern electronic devices for this. These devices, like the old objective research methods, are mainly intended for microelectrode recording and studying the activity of individual neurons (groups of neurons), or for recording and analyzing the general electromagnetic activity of the brain.

Within these two main approaches to the use of electromagnetic activity nervous system for the study of mental phenomena, a number of particular methods have developed, used depending on the research problem being solved. Among them one can name brain evoked potential recording method, method of microelectrode recording of the activity of individual neurons or their groups, method of three-dimensional computer mapping of the general electromagnetic activity of the brain and etc.

Evoked potential registration method is the following procedure. When using this method, the subject is repeatedly presented with the same stimulus, causing a brain reaction in the form of electrical potentials. Then, numerous reactions of the brain to a given stimulus are generalized, and on the basis of such a generalization, an integral, typical reaction of the brain or its individual structures to a given stimulus is determined. It includes a positive or negative deviation of brain potentials that occurs at certain intervals of time. Based on these deviations, which indicate the activation of the corresponding brain structures, one can judge the information processing processes taking place in the brain, including psychological ones, including cognitive processes and human states.

This method has the following undoubted advantage: it allows you to record the electromagnetic activity of the brain without interfering with its normal activity, without violating its integrity, registering this activity using appropriate sensors from the surface of the human head. Therefore, this method can be widely used in a variety of psychological studies conducted on humans. This method, however, has a significant drawback. It allows you to register only the general electromagnetic activity of the brain on its surface, but does not make it possible to judge the processes occurring in the deep structures of the brain. The following objective method of physiological study of mental processes is deprived of this shortcoming - the method of microelectrode assignment of the electromagnetic activity of individual neurons or their groups.

This method makes it possible to work both with individual neurons and with closely spaced (functionally interconnected) groups of neurons located in the deep structures of the brain.

The method of three-dimensional computer mapping of the brain is one of the modern methods for studying the electromagnetic activity of the brain, including the display of this activity on a monitor screen with its subsequent analysis using a special computer program. There are several variants of this method based on the use of various physical and chemical phenomena, for example positron emission tomography of the brain, magnetic resonance imaging of the brain.

When using positron emission tomography of the brain, a special weakly radioactive solution with unstable isotopes that quickly decay and therefore are not dangerous to the body is introduced into the blood. In the blood streams passing through various structures of the brain, the radioactive substance in the blood decays, and its decay is recorded using appropriate sensors located on the surface of the human head. The disadvantage of this type of 3D computer brain mapping method is precisely the need to inject a radioactive substance into the blood of the test subject each time, although this method itself has a fairly high resolution.

The physical basis of the method of magnetic resonance imaging of the brain

is the effect of radiation of radio waves of a certain frequency by individual atoms located in a variable magnetic field. This field, in turn, is artificially created and maintained by a multi-ton bulk magnet placed around the subject. The corresponding method also has a high resolution, but is expensive and requires the use of complex and cumbersome equipment.

The method of functional magnetic resonance imaging, based on three-dimensional computer mapping of the brain, is also considered the most advanced and most suitable for psychological research, in which the amount of oxygen associated with them in the blood, in particular the hemoglobin molecule, is used as an indicator of the processes occurring in the brain. This indicator clearly correlates with neural activity in the corresponding areas of the brain.

In modern cognitive-psychological research, a magnetic field has been used not only to register with its help the processes occurring in the brain, but also to actively change the dynamics of the physiological processes themselves, followed by the study of how, as a result, the mental processes of interest to the scientist change. For this, in particular, powerful magnetic effects exerted on the brain are used. They lead to a short-term change in the activity of certain parts of it, presumably associated with certain mental processes. This method is called transcranial magnetic stimulation.

In general, magnetoencephalography, i.e. the study of brain activity through registration or exposure to magnetic fields associated with its work is considered one of the most productive methods for studying mental processes. Magnetoencephalography is used, for example, to clarify the psychological functions of individual brain structures, to study the physiological processes associated with various mental phenomena.

Methods for the objective study of mental processes and phenomena, similar to those described above, continue to be improved on the basis of the latest achievements in physics, physiology, computer technology and medical technology. However, the problem associated with these methods, which is still characteristic of the early objective (physiological) methods of studying mental phenomena, still remains unresolved. We are still talking about the absence of convincing and satisfactory answers to the following questions.

• 1. How are specific mental processes and phenomena that are of interest to psychologists associated with certain brain structures, the activity of which is recorded using appropriate devices? This refers to the presence of accurate knowledge about the anatomical representation (localization) in the brain of known mental phenomena.
• 2. How do the processes and phenomena described in psychological science correlate with the physiological processes recorded with the help of appropriate instruments? This implies knowledge concerning the correlation of mental phenomena and physiological (physical) processes that characterize the activity of the brain.

The lack of convincing and unambiguous answers to these key questions for psychology makes modern psychologists doubt the objectivity of all the so-called "objective" methods without exception, the possibility of obtaining accurate and reliable data on psychological phenomena with their help, surpassing what is already known about them. known in psychological science and life practice before the advent of these research methods. For example, we still do not know exactly how the well-known, thoroughly studied and described in detail phenomena in psychology are connected with what is recorded and presented to us even by the most modern electronic devices and the latest computer technology. Despite the extreme complexity of instruments and devices, psychologists still cannot fully trust them in terms of obtaining information specifically about mental processes and phenomena.

Representatives of modern cognitive psychology, where scientific research is widely used latest technology, believe that this technique will allow them to advance further in the study of mental phenomena than many generations of psychologists have been able to do before them, who studied mental phenomena without appropriate instruments, for example, observation methods, interviews, tests or experimental psychological methods. This is an obvious misconception that is easy to disprove if we compare the content, depth and breadth of information about mental phenomena, which is available to traditional, "precognitive" psychology, with the information obtained over the past half century in cognitive psychology itself. The first is much more informative, richer and more diverse than the second, and this undoubted fact convinces us that no devices so far (and probably in the foreseeable future) are not able to replace traditional, non-equipment methods for studying mental phenomena with hardware ones. The information about these phenomena, which is available to traditional psychology, was obtained by hundreds of scientists-psychologists with the help of the most advanced “technical device” in the world - the human brain, the “living computer”, the human mind and consciousness, which can be surpassed in terms of cognition of reality, including mental phenomena, the technique invented by people will never be able to.

Tests are standardized methods of psychological research that allow obtaining accurate quantitative and standard qualitative descriptions of data on the studied mental phenomena.

The word "test" in translation from in English in Russian means "test", "check" or "test". Consequently, when characterizing the method of psychological research as a test, it is understood that with the help of this method it is possible to study and accurately assess the level of development in a person of one or another psychological property.

Tests are the main group of psychological research methods. With their help, many psychological properties of a person are now successfully assessed, starting with sensations and ending with personal characteristics and interpersonal relationships of people. Most Common Groups psychological tests represent intelligence tests And personality tests. With the help of intelligence tests, the level of a person’s intellectual development is assessed (the level of development of one hundred thinking), and with the help of personality tests, the degree of development of certain personal properties in a person, for example, abilities, temperament properties, character traits, behavioral motives, needs.

Psychological tests are divided into tests-questionnaires, tests-tasks, projective and other tests. Questionnaire tests are based on questions that the subjects must answer, or judgments to which they must respond in a certain way, for example, express their agreement or disagreement with them. Task tests include tasks that need to be solved or tasks that need to be completed.

Projective tests are those in which subjects perform some kind of vague but thematically directed task. In the process of performing such a task or solving a corresponding (projective) task, the subject exhibits certain psychological properties. With the help of a special procedure for meaningful analysis of the results of the implementation of the corresponding task, a conclusion is made about its psychological characteristics.

In a projective test, the subject may be offered a standardized, unstructured set of stimuli and given a recommendation to respond to them freely, i.e. respond to appropriate stimuli with the first images, thoughts, experiences, or actions that come to mind. Then this "projective production" - oral statements, written records or drawings - is subjected to a special meaningful analysis, as a result of which conclusions are drawn about the psychological state or personality of the person concerned.

Well-known examples of projective tests that have become widespread are the Rorschach test and the thematic apperceptive test (abbreviated as TAT) by G. Murray. In the first of these tests, the subjects interpret shapeless ink spots, and in the second, situations depicted in plot-indefinite pictures (see the Rorschach test and the Thematic Apperception Test (TLT) in the Glossary of Terms).

There are many types of projective psychological tests: picturesque(in them, the subjects are asked to draw something), thematic-apperceptive(here the subjects must come up with stories based on plot-indefinite pictures), pending tests(in them, the subjects are given tasks to complete a series of phrases or sentences), free association tests(they are based on the so-called free associations that first arise in the subjects in response to the word uttered by the experimenter, the situation that has arisen, etc.), etc. Projective psychological tests are considered one of the best, valid psychological tests, as they allow you to receive reliable information about the little realized or not realized, as well as about the psychological characteristics of the person being studied, deliberately hidden from the surrounding people.

True, the reliability of the results obtained with the help of many projective psychological tests is not high, especially if they are used repeatedly on the same group of subjects with a short time interval between successive test presentations. This, however, is explained not by the low reliability of the psychological test itself, but by the fact that its presentation changes the psychological state of the subject. Often, in addition, they put an equal sign between the psychological test and the projective technique. This is not entirely correct, since not all types of projective technique are standardized psychological tests.

A large number of various psychological tests can be divided into groups in different ways. For the classification of tests, for example, the following features (criteria) can be used:

• 1) the purpose of the test, one hundred goal (a psychological property studied and evaluated using this test);
• 2) the content of the tasks included in the test;
• 3) the type (specificity) of the property studied using this test;
• 4) the presence or absence of test norms (see "test norm" and other articles on this topic in the glossary);
• 5) the type of indicators obtained using the test;
• 6) the method of presenting the test to the subjects.

By purpose, tests are divided in accordance with the characteristics of the psychological properties studied with their help. For example, there are tests of cognitive processes: sensation tests) perception tests, attention tests, memory tests, imagination tests, thinking tests And speech tests. There are also tests that evaluate a variety of mental states, such as tension, relaxation, anxiety, attitudes, mood, etc. There are tests by which personality traits are studied and evaluated (they are called personality tests).

The tests listed above are used in general psychology. In other psychological sciences, for example, in social, engineering, clinical and other

branches of psychology, other psychological tests may be used.

According to the type (specificity) of the properties studied using the test, they can be divided into achievement tests And process tests. In the first case, with the help of a test, the results of a person’s work or one hundred achievements in the corresponding type of activity are studied and evaluated. In the second case, a process is subject to evaluation, and not its end result.

According to the presence or absence of test norms, psychological tests are divided, respectively, into those that have such norms, and those in which there are no norms or are not provided for. Test norms are the average scores obtained by a large number of people on the corresponding test. Such norms are established using the following procedure. By means of a test for which the corresponding norm is determined, one studies a large number of people (usually bend and thousands), the average score obtained by these people on the corresponding test is calculated, and it is taken as the test norm.

With this indicator in the process of practical application of the test, the indicators obtained by individuals are compared, and as a result of the comparison, a conclusion is made about the level of development of the studied psychological property in the corresponding people (corresponding to the norm, developed above the norm, or located below the norm). Examples of tests having similarly set standards are intelligence tests and some personality tests. Examples of tests that typically lack norms are projective tests, such as the Rorschach test or the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).

But the type of indicators obtained with the help of tests, they are divided into those that allow you to obtain quantitative estimates of the property being studied, and those that result in a qualitative description of the corresponding property (sometimes there are tests that allow you to get both types of indicators: quantitative and qualitative).

In turn, tests, through which it is possible to obtain quantitative indicators of the studied property, can be divided into two more groups: those that provide standardized indicators, and those that provide non-standardized indicators. Standardized are called test indicators, the norms for which are equal, respectively, 1 or 100%.

According to the method of presentation to the subject, psychological tests can be divided into the following types: oral, written, practical, pencil and paper tests», technical(provided with appropriate equipment).

Oral tests are presented to the subject in the form of questions or judgments, to which the person, accordingly, must give an oral answer. Written tests are presented in the form of written tasks (questions, judgments), and the answers to them are also supposed to be given in writing. Practical tests are called tests that involve the performer of any real actions with material objects or, accordingly, the solution of practical problems. Pencil-and-paper tests are tests that use only paper and some form of manual recording. Such tests do not involve the use of any special equipment. Technically supported are called tests, during which special equipment is used, for example, computers, devices, etc. Of course, there are also combined test options, which may include two or more of the above features. In addition, within each of these groups of tests, one can distinguish their numerous particular varieties.

We also note that the names of tests can be given either by the name of those psychological properties that are studied and evaluated using the corresponding test, or by the name of the author of the corresponding test. For example, according to the psychological properties studied with their help, tests can be divided into mental process tests, mental state tests And psychological tests. In turn, each individual test, depending on what property it evaluates, can be refined, specified by name.

Since the creation and verification of a psychological test is a complex and time-consuming creative and technical work, which usually requires a lot of time, psychological tests are considered as inventions of their authors, are protected by law, and often receive appropriate copyright names. This is necessary not only in order to note the personal merits of the author of the test in one hundred creation, but also in order to distinguish tests from each other. There are, for example, more than a dozen intelligence tests and no less number of personality tests that differ from each other in authorship, although in fact they are intended to assess the same psychological properties (see "psychological test", "projective tests" and others articles related to tests in the glossary).

In conclusion, we will briefly consider some well-known tests and evaluate them in terms of the features described above, which are the basis for the classification of tests, i.e. Let's determine to which group of tests they can be assigned in accordance with the features of their classifications presented above.

Binet-Simon test. Other names for this test are Winet - Simon scale or Binet - Simon scale of mental development. The test was intended to study the mental abilities of schoolchildren and was developed by A. Binet and T. Simon in France in 1905. Using the Binet-Simon test, such cognitive functions of a person as attention, memory, imagination and thinking were evaluated. It was the first standard intelligence test developed in psychology. It also turned out to be the first of the psychological tests, which was aimed at studying the higher mental abilities of a person, in contrast to the methods for assessing simpler actions, individual sensory functions, reaction time, the ability to distinguish between stimuli, etc. (tests developed and used earlier, for example, in the scientific psychological laboratories of W. Wundt and F. Galton, were aimed at this).

The Binet-Simon test was improved twice, in 1908 and in 1911, including

through the introduction of age norms. In the model and likeness of the Binet test -

Simon subsequently created many other intelligence tests. During the existence and use of the Binet-Simon test, it has been revised and adapted many times in various countries, in particular in the USA, at Stanford University by A. Termep. Today, the Binet-Simon test is practically not used anymore. Instead, other, more modern and advanced intelligence tests have been created and are being used.

According to the classification options presented above, this test can be assessed as an achievement test designed to assess intelligence, including practical tasks that allow obtaining quantitative indicators of the level of intelligence development, and presented to the test subjects in writing.

Eysenck intelligence test*. This is one of the most popular intelligence tests today, developed by the English psychologist G. Yu. Eysenck. The Eysenck test is based on eight subscales designed to assess the level of development of a person's general intelligence, as well as a number of special types of intelligence: mathematical, verbal-logical and figurative-logical. Accordingly, five of the eight subscales of the Eysenck intelligence test are general and, on the whole, comprehensively assess the types of thinking (intelligence), three subscales are special, evaluating each of the named types of thinking (intelligence) separately. In turn, each of the subscales of the Eysenck intelligence test includes several dozen special tasks. The Eysenck intelligence test is given 4 hours (30 minutes per subscale). The level of intellectual development of the subject according to the Eysenck intelligence test is determined as a percentage in relation to the norm, which is from 90 to 100%.

This test can be classified as an intelligence test aimed at assessing achievements (solving tasks included in the test). It allows you to obtain standardized quantitative indicators of the level of development of general and some particular types of intelligence: verbal, mathematical, figurative-logical and is presented in writing (see also "Wexler test" and other articles about the varieties of this test, "Raven test", "School test of mental development (STUR) "in the glossary).

Bennett test. This is a special intelligence test designed to assess the level of development of a person's physical and technical thinking. The Bennett test includes 70 tasks, each of which concerns the solution of a physical and technical problem and has three solutions, and only one of them is correct. The subject, having familiarized himself with the verbal description of the problem and the technical drawing corresponding to the conditions of the problem, must choose the correct variant of solving this problem from his point of view. The level of development of physical and technical thinking for this test is determined total number tasks correctly solved within the allotted time (25 minutes). Teet Bennett is used in the practice of vocational counseling and vocational guidance to assist a person in choosing a profession and preparing for the development of a future (physical or technical) profession.

This test can be classified as follows. It is a test designed to assess the level of development of physical and technical thinking, contains practical tasks and, accordingly, is a test of achievements. It can be used to obtain quantitative data characterizing the level of intelligence development, although these indicators are not standardized. The test is presented to the examinees in writing.

Vygotsky-Sakharov test. This test was developed by L. S. Vygotsky and L. S. Sakharov and is intended for experimental study of the process of concept formation in children, as well as for assessing the level of development of their conceptual thinking. The same test can be used in the clinic to study the process of concept formation in adults with certain mental disorders.

In the process of practical use of the Vygotsky-Sakharov test, a person is offered a set of volumetric geometric shapes of various shapes, colors, widths and heights (the stimulus material for the Vygotsky-Sakharov test is usually a collection of 32 geometric shapes.) On the lower surface of each figure, invisible to the subject, there are three-letter meaningless combinations that play the role of artificial concepts in the corresponding experiment . In the standard case, there are four such words-concepts. One of them denotes only tall figures, the other - wide figures, the third - tall and narrow figures, and the fourth - short and wide figures. The content of the formed concepts may include the above features: shape, color, height and width in any combination. The task of the subject is to independently and as quickly as possible determine which specific indications are included in the artificial concept given by the experimenter, and give this concept an exact verbal definition.

During the Vygotsky-Sakharov test, the subject can be given hints during the task, and by how well he uses these tips, one can draw conclusions about his zone of proximal development. Another name for this test is the double stimulation technique. Currently, it has several varieties of the Vygotsky-Sakharov test, created and improved after the publication of the original version of this test.

Formally, from the point of view of the criteria for classifying tests defined above, the Vygotsky-Sakharov test can be evaluated as follows. It is a process test and at the same time an achievement test. It is intended both for studying the process of concept formation (for this purpose, this test was used by L. S. Vygotsky immediately after its creation), and for assessing the degree of formation of concepts. The test is based on performance practical tasks and presented to the subjects in the appropriate form. The test has no firmly established norms and, therefore,

with a hundred help, non-standardized, non-standardized indicators of both quantitative and qualitative plans are obtained.

Rorschach test. This is one of the well-known projective personality tests, developed by the German psychiatrist G. Rorschach. The stimulus material for this test is shapeless symmetrical black and white or colored ink blots. The classic version of the Rorschach test uses both black and white and colored spots. Five of them are black and white, two are in one, and the other three are in several colors. The subject receives the task, after carefully peering into each spot, to answer the question of what, in his opinion, is depicted in it, and then state the answer in detail, orally or in writing. This test is the oldest of all projective psychological tests. Based on the principles laid down in the Rorschach test, many other projective personality tests have been created.

The responses received from the subjects are analyzed according to special program, and as a result of the analysis, a conclusion is made about the individual (personal) characteristics of the corresponding subject. According to the classical interpretation of the responses of the subjects, the reaction to color reflects the characteristics of the emotional state of a person; the form and localization of the “seen” are signs of the so-called general life orientation; "vision" of movements - a tendency to introspection; originality of interpretation is a sign of a developed intellect; the strangeness of the proposed interpretation is an indicator of neuroticism.

The Rorschach test is currently predominantly used in clinical research to determine whether the subject has any mental disorders or deviations characteristic of a particular disease.

Despite the fairly widespread use of the Rorschach test, convincing evidence of its validity, including various modifications of the test, has not yet been received. Users of the Rorschach test, who believe in its psychodiagnostic capabilities, prefer not to pay attention to this circumstance, and critics use it to doubt the scientific validity of the test. However, many recognize that the Rorschach test allows the clinician to conduct a conversation with the patient, during which there is an additional opportunity to receive useful information about the nature of the patient and his disease.

According to the classification criteria described above, this test can be defined as designed to study the unconscious in the human psyche in terms of Freud's theory of personality. This test is of a projective type, it includes tasks for the interpretation of unstructured pictorial material. The test allows for quantitative data processing, however, the main conclusions when using it are made on the basis of a qualitative analysis of the interpretations offered to the subjects.

Cattell test(another extended name is Cattell's sixteen-factor test). This is one of the first known personality tests, often used in psychodiagnostic practice. It was developed by R. Cattel in the 30s. 20th century and became the first mathematically based personality test in the history of psychology, designed to study and evaluate the psychology of healthy people. It is used to evaluate and study a person as a person on sixteen different factors (sixteen personality traits).

The Cattell test has two versions: for children and for adults. The adult version of the test includes 187 judgments, for each of which the subject, having previously attributed the corresponding judgment to himself, must give one of the following answers: “yes”, “no”, “I don’t know”, i.e. evaluate yourself. As a result of the analysis of the responses of the subject to the corresponding judgments, a conclusion is made about the development of the studied personality traits in him. The children's version of the Cattell test includes 55 judgments and, in turn, has two options: for boys and for girls.

Evaluating this test using classification criteria, we can say the following about it. It is designed to simultaneously assess several personality traits, is a written text with closed-type questions. With its help, one can obtain quantitative, standardized indicators of the degree of development of the corresponding personality traits and build a personality profile, i.e. offer a person as a person a qualitative individual characteristic.

Minnesota multifactorial (multivariable) personality questionnaire(from English. MMPI, in Russian abbreviation - MMLO). The test is one of the well-known psychological tests-questionnaires designed to assess personality. The MMPI was first published in 1942, and its initial version included 550 judgments with which the subject had to agree or disagree. Initially, the MMPI was intended mainly for clinical purposes (its norms were set on visitor populations psychiatric clinics, alcoholics and drug addicts), including to identify common clinical syndromes of a particular nervous or mental illness.

Although MMPI tests have shown that it does not provide a completely objective clinical picture of a disease, nevertheless, this test has proved to be useful in studies on social and personal problems. Based on the totality of judgments that make up the MMPI, over 200 separate scales were subsequently created to measure personality traits such as anxiety, strength "I", masculinity-femininity, internality-externality and many others. In 1980, a modern version of the MMPI was proposed, which included 567 judgments related to 15 different scales.

The MMPI test (MMLO) can be classified as follows. This is a personality test designed to assess multiple personality traits at the same time. The content of this test is a questionnaire with standardized answers. Moreover, it is normalized, i.e. has test standards. Each personality trait studied with its help can be quantified and, as in the case of the Cattell test, a personality profile can be built from the results obtained.

Experimental methods are called such research methods that involve the creation or use of an unusual (experimental) situation to study one or another psychological property of a person. This is a situation in which the property under study is best manifested, and, therefore, it can be carefully and deeply studied.

There are three types of experiments used in psychology for research purposes. These experiments are respectively called laboratory, field And natural. A laboratory experiment is organized and carried out in a specially equipped room, in a scientific laboratory equipped with research equipment. The field experiment is carried out in real life. An experiment is called natural, which is organized by life itself. It is carried out without interference from the scientist, and his role is to observe what is happening, record and analyze it (see "scientific experiment" and other articles on the topic of experiment in the glossary of terms).

Mathematical methods are methods of research borrowed from mathematics and used in psychology in order to give the data obtained an accurate quantitative expression. In turn, mathematical research methods are divided into two main groups: methods of mathematical statistics And methods mathematical modeling. The methods of mathematical statistics allow you to make quantitative calculations, obtain quantitative indicators and find out mathematically expressible patterns hidden behind the data that the psychologist obtains in the course of the study. Methods of mathematical modeling are called such methods by which psychological laws are presented in the form of mathematical formulas and expressions.

Mathematical research methods began to be used in psychology from the second half of XIX century, when psychology became an independent, experimental science. They began to be used to measure psychological phenomena and obtain reliable data on the connections of mental phenomena with each other, as well as with other phenomena. A great contribution to resolving the issue of the possibility of application in psychology mathematical methods made by German scientists, physicists in basic education, E. Weber and G. Fechner. They formulated the main psychophysical law - the first law of psychology, presented in the form of an exact mathematical equation, connecting the strength of human sensations with the magnitude of the physical stimuli that cause them. G. Fechner, in addition, proposed fairly accurate methods for measuring the threshold values ​​of various sensations.

British scientists also played a significant role in the introduction of mathematical methods into psychological research. F. Galton in 1884 organized an anthropometric laboratory at the international industrial exhibition in London, where he and his collaborators began to measure the elementary sensory and motor abilities of people. Two well-known mathematicians, C. Spearman and R. Fisher, collaborated with F. Galton in this laboratory. They proposed the first methods of mathematical statistics, which then became widely used in experimental psychological research. These are correlation methods. analysis of variance, factor analysis, etc.

These methods, in turn, were based on mathematical statistics developed by A. Quetelet (1835). C. Spearman and R. Fisher were among the first to use it to study mental phenomena. In 1890, D. Cattell's article "Mental Tests and Measurements" was published with an afterword by F. Galton. She laid the foundation for the practical use of mathematical statistics methods for assessing intellectual abilities.

Later, in 1905, the French psychologist A. Binet created the first intelligence test, improved a year later by another French scientist, Simon. Shortly thereafter, the German psychologist G. Munstrberg developed mathematically based tests for measuring professional abilities, and then the intelligence tests of the American psychologist D. Wexler were created.

The main and most common method of mathematical evaluation of the studied phenomena, used in psychology, is called scaling. It is a variety of measuring instruments, with the help of which quantitative assessments of the studied phenomena are made. For this, special psychological measuring scales are used. The main varieties of psychological measuring scales nominal, ordinal and interval. They have different capabilities and allow you to get indicators of different degrees of accuracy. Depending on the scale with which the psychological phenomenon was measured, certain methods of mathematical statistics are used (see "scale" and other articles related to this concept in the glossary of terms).

Let's consider some of the most well-known methods of mathematical statistics designed to identify dependencies that exist in quantitative empirical data.

correlation method(or correlation method). It establishes a statistical relationship between two or more series of indicators. As a result of applying this method, it turns out how closely related to each other or, on the contrary, independent of each other (in the mathematical sense of the word) are the corresponding series of indicators. When using this method, to characterize the closeness of the relationship between the compared series of indicators, correlation coefficient, which is a standardized quantitative indicator of the dependence of the corresponding series of indicators on each other.

The value of the correlation coefficient can vary from -1 to +1. The value of the correlation coefficient, equal to -1, indicates that there is an inverse relationship between the compared variables: a larger value of one of the variables always corresponds to a smaller value of the other variable, and vice versa. The value of the correlation coefficient, which is +1, indicates a direct relationship between the corresponding variables: a larger value of one of them always corresponds to a larger value of the other variable, and vice versa. A correlation coefficient equal to 0 indicates the absence of any statistical relationship between the compared indicators. In general, the more the absolute value of the correlation coefficient approaches unity, the stronger the relationship between the compared series of values; the closer the value of the correlation coefficient is to zero, the weaker the statistical relationship between the corresponding values ​​(see "correlation" and all other articles on this topic in the glossary of terms).

Factor analysis. This is a method of mathematical statistics that allows you to identify groups of indicators that are statistically related (correlating) to each other and, at the same time, not related (not correlated) with other indicators. The purpose of applying this method is to reduce the set of pairwise correlations between the studied variables to several common reasons explaining them, which in the language of mathematics are called factors. Factor analysis is a method of mathematical statistics, which includes a set of mathematical procedures, with the help of which, in a set of particular facts, several main dimensions are distinguished, factors around which the corresponding facts are grouped. In turn, the factors identified using factor analysis are considered as the alleged causes underlying the statistical relationships (correlations) between particular facts.

The factor analysis procedure is as follows. First, a large amount of various data concerning a significant number of people is obtained empirically. These data can be obtained using any methods of psychological research. Then the technique of correlation and factor analysis is applied to them in order to identify the underlying factors. When carrying out the procedure of factor analysis, a limited number of factors responsible for various variations of the studied facts are first determined. After that, the relative weight is set - the value of each factor, i.e. the contribution that this factor makes to the variations of the particular facts corresponding to it. This weight is sometimes called factor loading. In conclusion, each of the identified factors receives its psychological designation (interpretation). When factor analysis is used to study personality structure, the factors identified are psychologically interpreted as separate personality traits. The main ideas of factor analysis were proposed by the English psychologist C. Spearman (1904), and his technique was further improved by L. Thurstone (1931).

One of the tasks of factor analysis in experimental psychology is to replace the many different methods designed to study various particular phenomena, as a result of it, with one or more methods that allow you to measure and evaluate the factors that explain the corresponding particular phenomena. The material for factor analysis is a set of pairwise correlations between facts. It is believed that one and the same factor lies behind statistically significantly correlated facts. In turn, the factors identified as a result of factor analysis are considered as independent (orthogonal) if the facts related to them do not statistically correlate with each other (see "factor analysis" and other articles related to the concept of a factor in the glossary of terms) .

Sometimes researchers face the task of comparing two average values ​​of any indicators with each other in order to answer the question of whether the corresponding average values ​​differ or do not differ from each other. In this case, many methods are used, one of which is called t-test or Studeit's test.

The formula for the Studsnt test is as follows:

If the indicator calculated by this formula t will be greater than or equal to the table value this indicator for a certain level of significance, then the hypothesis of the existence of statistical differences between the compared samples is considered confirmed with a given level of significance (a given probability of an acceptable error). Otherwise, the corresponding hypothesis is rejected as invalid.

Fisher's test for variances - this is a statistical test that establishes the significance of the differences in the variances of two independent samples. This criterion was proposed by the German mathematician E. Fischer. The formula for the corresponding criterion is as follows:

In the event that the indicator F, calculated by this formula, will be greater than or equal to the corresponding tabular value for a given significance level, the hypothesis of the existence of significant differences between the compared variances is considered proven at this significance level. Otherwise, the corresponding hypothesis is rejected as false.

x-squared test - a statistical test that allows you to establish the significance of differences in the distributions of data (expressed as a percentage or fractions of a unit) between two or more independent samples. The /-square test formula for two samples is as follows:

If the value of the criterion /-square, calculated by this formula, turns out to be greater than or equal to the tabular value of this criterion with a given level of significance, the hypothesis of the existence of significant statistical differences between the compared samples is considered confirmed. Otherwise, this hypothesis is rejected as untenable.

All the methods described above for obtaining and processing experimental (empirical) data are schematically, in unified system can be imagined, as shown in Fig. 3.3.

In addition to the methods described, which are common to all psychological sciences, there are also special research methods used in certain areas of psychological knowledge. Most often, such methods are used in the applied branches of psychology and are borrowed from the sciences that are associated with the study of activities to which the corresponding applied psychological sciences relate. So, for example, in educational psychology often applied formative pedagogical experiment, in psychogenetics - twin method, in engineering psychology - technical research methods, in medical psychology - clinical method.

In scientific research, the phrase "clinical method" is the general name of methods and procedures for the diagnosis, classification and treatment of nervous disorders and other diseases. The clinical method is also called an approach to the study of psychological phenomena, based on an intuitive, subjective analysis of the available data. In medical psychology, the clinical method is a method of detailed, versatile study of causes and effects, as well as the dynamics of changes in psychology and human behavior in connection with certain diseases, followed by detailed description this. In this interpretation, the clinical method is an alternative to the statistical method.

Within the terminology proposed by J. Piaget, the clinical method at one time meant a method of data collection based on the so-called quasi-natural interaction of an adult with a child, in which the experimenter offered the child some object or task or asked him any questions. At the same time, the child was allowed to respond freely, and the experimenter was just as free to interpret the child's answers and, at his own discretion, move from one task and question to another. Introducing the definition of "clinical method", J. Piaget thereby wanted to draw attention to the fact that this method of collecting primary information about a person has much in common with the conversation of a psychiatrist in a clinic with a patient.

So, let's summarize what was said in this paragraph of the chapter.

• 1. In methodological terms (in terms of finding and substantiating methods of scientific research), psychology has long since overcome the state of crisis. At present, it has a large number of various methods for studying mental phenomena, which makes it possible to obtain reliable, reliable and fairly accurate information about these phenomena.
• 2. Each individual method of psychological research does not make it possible to obtain results that can be completely and unconditionally trusted. However, the use in the same study of several methods at once to study the same psychological phenomenon successfully solves this problem, since the data obtained using some methods are controlled and cross-checked by data obtained using other methods.
• 3. best practices studies are psychological tests. Using them in practice, however, it is necessary to take into account the following two circumstances: a) any psychological test is based on a certain scientific theory, and the correct interpretation of the data obtained with its help can only be proposed within the framework of the corresponding theory; b) none of the known tests allows obtaining comprehensive information about the psychological property studied with its help, therefore it is important to know the capabilities of the corresponding test and correlate them with the definition of the psychological property being studied, accepted in science.
• 4. Due to the presence of a large number of various research methods in psychology, there are also different ways of classifying them (dividing into subgroups). There are no uniform criteria (general grounds) for dividing psychological research methods into groups, determining which of the proposed classifications is better or worse than others. There are only general logical requirements that any scientific classification must meet, and from the point of view of these requirements, classifications of methods of psychological research can be evaluated.

• In humans, for obvious reasons, this method is not used. Sometimes, however, when performing operations on the human brain (this is done, for example, in severe cases of epilepsy or when, in order to save a person’s life and the safety of those around him, it is necessary to constantly monitor the processes occurring in his brain), surgeons have to implant electrodes and the human brain, but this is not done for experimental, but for therapeutic purposes.
• The resolution of this and other methods for studying brain activity is understood as the ability to use it to fix and describe in detail the subtle neurophysiological and neuropsychological processes occurring in the brain.
• There is a mathematical procedure accepted in testology (the so-called branch of science associated with the creation, verification and practical application of various psychological tests) for establishing standardized test indicators.
• In this case, for the name of the test, it is not enough to indicate only the name of the author, since G. Yu. Eysenck developed not only the well-known intelligence test, but also a number of other tests, for example, the temperament test.
• The test norm is always set not in the form of an exact figure, but in the form of a certain interval. This is due to two reasons: the need to consider most people as being within the normal range, despite the fact that their individual test scores may differ; the inaccuracy of the measurements themselves made in psychology, the presence of a large number of random errors in the measurements made.
• The zone of proximal development is opportunities or prospects psychological development, which a person has and can be realized with a little help from people around him. The concept of the zone of proximal development, according to L. S. Vygotsky, is considered in more detail in developmental psychology or developmental psychology.

Methods of psychology - A set of methods and techniques for studying mental phenomena.

There are various classifications of methods of psychology. One of the most popular is the classification of B. G. Ananiev. In accordance with it, 4 groups of methods of psychology are distinguished.

1 group – Organizational Methods- a group of methods of psychology that determine the general way of organizing psychological research.

These include comparative, longitudinal and complex methods. The comparative method of organizing the study is based on a comparison of data from different age groups. Longitudinal research involves a long-term study of the phenomenon of interest. The complex method involves an interdisciplinary study of the subject.

2 group – empirical methods- a group of methods of psychology, allowing to obtain primary data on the phenomenon under study. Therefore, these methods are also known as "methods of collecting primary information." Empirical methods include observation and experiment.

3 group – Data processing methods- imply a quantitative (statistical) and qualitative analysis of primary data (differentiation of material into groups, comparison, comparison, etc.).

4 group – Interpretive methods – various tricks explanations of the patterns revealed as a result of data processing and their comparison with previously established facts. Allocate a genetic method of interpretation (analysis of the material in terms of development with the allocation of individual phases, stages, critical moments etc.) and a structural method (establishing a structural connection between all personality characteristics).

The main methods of obtaining psychological information are observation and experiment.

Observation- one of the main methods of collecting primary information, consisting in the systematic and purposeful perception and fixation of mental phenomena in certain conditions.

Required Conditions to use the method: a clear plan of observation, fixing the results of the observation, building a hypothesis that explains the observed phenomena, and testing the hypothesis in subsequent observations.

Experiment(from Latin experimentum - test, experience) - one of the main methods of collecting primary information, characterized by the fact that the researcher systematically manipulates one or more variables (or factors) and fixes the accompanying changes in the manifestation of the phenomenon under study.

A laboratory experiment is carried out under special conditions, the actions of the subject are determined by the instructions, the subject knows that the experiment is being carried out, although he may not know the true meaning of the experiment until the end.

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Topic 1

METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Psychological research: requirements for the organization and its stages

Characteristics of the main empirical methods of psychology

Possession of methods for studying the psychology of personality is one of the necessary components of the professional activity of a lawyer. A lawyer must be able to identify, analyze and take into account individual psychological features personality (witness, suspect, accused) goals of their actions and deeds, hidden motives of behavior. The choice of methods for studying the personality of subjects of various legal relations in the professional activities of a lawyer, as well as the adequacy of the methods themselves, largely depends on the goals that he faces and on the nature of the issues that need to be resolved.

Psychological research:
requirements for the organization and its stages

The method of obtaining objective knowledge about the surrounding reality is scientific research.Psychological research− it is a way of scientific knowledge of the essence of mental phenomena and their laws.

Psychological research includes a number of mandatory steps (Fig. 1) .

Any scientific research, including psychological research, must meet a number of strict requirements:

1. Study planning involves the development of a logical and chronological scheme of research, consisting of a detailed design of all its stages.
2. Locationresearch should provide isolation from external interference, meet sanitary and hygienic and engineering and psychological requirements.

1. Studying the state of the problem. Statement of the problem, choice of object and subject of research

2. Development or refinement of the general initial research concept. Hypothesis

3. Study planning

4. Data collection and factual description. In a theoretical study - the search and selection of facts, their systematization

5. Data processing

Determination of the goals and objectives of the study

Definition of experimental plans

Choice of research methods and techniques

Definition of mathematical processing methods data

6 . Evaluation of the results of hypothesis testing, interpretation of the results within the framework of the original research concept

7. Correlation of results with existing concepts and theories. Formulation of general conclusions. Assessment of the prospects for further development of the problem

Rice. 1. The main stages of psychological research

3. Technical equipmentshould correspond to the tasks to be solved, the entire course of the study and the level of analysis of the results obtained.

4. Selection of subjectsdepends on the objectives of the particular study andshould ensure their qualitative homogeneity.

5. Instruction must be clear, concise and unambiguous for the examinees.

6. Protocol research should be both complete and focused (selective).

7. Results processingresearch includes quantitative and qualitative methods for analyzing the empirical data obtained during the study .

Classification of research methods

Methods of psychologyname the main methods and means of cognition of mental phenomena and their patterns.

It should be noted that, although all methods aim to reveal the laws of the psyche and human behavior, each method does this in accordance with its inherent characteristics.

Future lawyers need to clearly understand the features of each method in order to actively use them in their professional activities. In psychology, there are four groups of research methods (Fig. 2) .

organizational methods.This group includes comparative, longitudinal and complex methods, which are used throughout the study and represent various organizational and research approaches.

Comparative methodinvolves a comparison of the objects under study on various grounds, indicators.

Longitudinal methodinvolves multiple examinations of the same persons over a long period of time.

Complex methodresearch is to consider the object from the standpoint of various sciences or from different points of view.

Classification

Methods of psychological research

Organizational

Data processing methods

Interpretation methods

empirical

Comparative

Phylogenetic

ontogenetic

Typology

Methods of mathematical and statistical data analysis

Qualitative analysis methods

Genetic

Structural

Complex

Longitudinal

Analysis of processes and products of activity

Biographical

Observation

Experiment

Psychodiagnostic methods

Method of expert assessments

Rice. 2. Classification of methods of psychological research
B.G. Ananyeva

empirical methods.These are, first of all, observation and experiment, as well as psychodiagnostic methods (conversation, questioning, testing, etc.), the method of expert assessments, the method of analyzing the process and products of activity, and the biographical method (Fig. 3).

Main

Auxiliary

Psychodiagnostic
methods:

1. conversation
2. questioning
3. testing

Observation

Observation:

1. open
2. hidden
3. passive
4. active
5. laboratory
6. natural
7. random
8. systematic
9. included
10. unincluded
11. continuous
12. selective
13. longitudinal
14. periodic
15. single

Experiment:

1. laboratory
2. natural
3. ascertaining
4. formative

Method of expert
ratings

Process and product analysis method
activities

biographical method

Empirical Research Methods

Observation

Rice. 3. Basic empirical methods of psychology

Data processing methods.These include quantitative(statistical) and qualitative(differentiation of material by groups, its analysis) methods.

Interpretation methods.This group includes genetic (analysis of material in terms of development with the allocation of individual phases, stages, critical moments, etc.) and structural(revealing the relationship between all personality characteristics) methods.

Characteristics of the main empirical methods
psychology

Observation Method

Observation - one of the main empirical methods of psychology, consisting in a deliberate, systematic and purposeful perception of mental phenomena in order to study their specific changes in certain conditions and search for the meaning of these phenomena, which is not directly given .

The description of phenomena based on observation is scientific if the psychological understanding of the inner side of the observed act contained in it gives a natural explanation of its external manifestation.

Only exteriorized (external) manifestations of verbal and non-verbal behavior are available for observation:

1. pantomime (posture, gait, gestures, postures, etc.);
2. facial expressions (facial expression, its expressiveness, etc.);
3. speech (silence, talkativeness, verbosity, laconism; stylistic features, content and culture of speech; intonation richness, etc.);
4. behavior in relation to other people (position in the team and attitude to this, the method of establishing contact, the nature of communication, communication style, position in communication, etc.);
5. the presence of contradictions in behavior (demonstration of different, opposite in meaning ways of behavior in situations of the same type);
6. behavioral manifestations of attitude towards oneself (to one's appearance, shortcomings, advantages, opportunities, personal belongings);
7. behavior in psychologically significant situations (task completion, conflict);
8. behavior in the main activity (work).

Factors that determine the complexity of knowing the internal through observation of the external are:

1. the ambiguity of connections between subjective psychic reality and its external manifestation;

There is the following classification of types of observation
(Fig. 4) .

From a chronological perspective of the organization observations

depending

From position

observer

By order

depending

from

regularity

Depending on activity

observer

Active

Random

Systematic

Systematic

selective

continuous

Random

Hidden

passive

open

Laboratory

natural

Clinical

single

periodic

Longitudinal

Observation

Not included

Included

Included

Not included

Rice. 4. Classification of types of observation

Depending on the position of the observer:

1. open - observation, in which the observed are aware of their role as the object of research;
2. hidden - observation, which is not reported to the subjects, carried out unnoticed by them.

2. Depending on the activity of the observer:

1. passive – observation without any direction;
2. active - observation of specific phenomena, the absence of interference in the observed process;

1. laboratory (experimental)– observation in artificially created conditions. The degree of artificiality can be different: from the minimum in a casual conversation in a familiar environment to the maximum in an experiment using special rooms, technical means and coercive instructions. In medical practice, this type of observation is often referred to as clinical observation, i.e. monitoring the patient during his treatment;
2. natural (field)– observation of objects in the natural conditions of their daily life and activities.

3. Depending on the regularity:

1. random – observation not planned in advance, performed due to unexpected circumstances;

1. systematic– intentional observation carried out according to a premeditated plan and, as a rule, according to a predetermined schedule;
2. included - observation, in which the observer is a member of the group under study and studies it, as it were, from the inside;
3. unincluded – observation from the outside, without the interaction of the observer with the object of study. This type of observation, in fact, is an objective (external) observation.

4. By order:

1. random - observation not planned in advance, performed due to unexpected circumstances;
2. continuous – continuous observation of the object without interruption. It is usually used for short term studies or when it is necessary to obtain the most complete information about the dynamics of the phenomena under study;
3. selective – observation carried out at separate time intervals chosen by the researcher at his own discretion;
4. systematic- intentional observation, carried out according to a premeditated plan and, as a rule, according to a predetermined schedule.

5. From the point of view of the chronological organization of observation:

1. longitudinal – observation for a long time;
2. periodic – observation during certain intervals

kov time;

1. single – description of a particular case.

The observation method has its own characteristics (Fig. 5).

Features of the application of the observation method

The wealth of information collected (analysis of both verbal information and actions, movements, deeds)

Subjectivity (the results largely depend on the experience, scientific views, qualifications, interests, work capacity of the researcher)

Preservation of the naturalness of the conditions of activity

It is acceptable to use a variety of technical means

It is not necessary to obtain the prior consent of the subjects

Significant loss of time due to passivity of the observer

Inability to control the situation, intervene in the course of events without distorting them

Rice. 5. Features of the application of the observation method

The description of phenomena based on observation is scientific if the psychological understanding of the internal (subjective) side of the observed act contained in it gives a natural explanation of its external manifestation. The traditional way of recording data is the observation diary, which is a special record of the observer, reflecting the facts from the life of the observed person.

Requirements for recording data in the observation diary:

1. adequate transmission of the meaning of the observed phenomena;
2. accuracy and figurativeness of formulations;
3. a mandatory description of the situation (background, context) in which the observed behavior took place.

The method of observation is widely used in legal practice. For a psychologist and a lawyer, external observation is one of the main methods of studying not only a person's behavior, but also his character and mental characteristics. By external manifestations, the investigator judges the internal causes of a person’s behavior, his emotional state, difficulties in perceiving, for example, a witness to a crime event, the attitude towards the participants in the investigation, justice, etc. This method is used in legal practice and for educational purposes (for example, by an investigator during investigative actions). During a search, interrogation, investigative experiment, the investigator has the opportunity to purposefully observe the behavior of persons of interest to him, their emotional reactions, and, depending on this, change the tactics of his observation.

The development of the "behavioral portrait" method by legal psychologists and lawyers allows you to create a more complete picture of specific person, which is being monitored (mental state of a person, character traits, social status). A behavioral portrait helps investigators and operatives in identifying suspects, accused, witnesses and victims, in searching for and apprehending criminals in hiding.

Self-observation (introspection)- this is the observation of one's own internal mental processes, but at the same time, the observation of their external manifestations.

In legal practice, the testimonies of victims, witnesses are actually self-reports about their states and experiences. Self-observation can be used by a lawyer as a method of self-knowledge, allowing him to identify his characterological features, personality traits in order to better control his own behavior, neutralize in time, for example, the manifestation of unnecessary emotional reactions, outbursts of irritability in extreme conditions caused by neuropsychic overload. kami.

Experiment

Experiment is a method of collecting empirical data in specially planned and controlled conditions in which the experimenter influences the phenomenon under study and registers changes in its state . The following types of experiment are distinguished: laboratory, natural, ascertaining, forming (Fig. 6, Table 1).

Experiment

Natural

(carried out in real
living conditions)

Laboratory

(carried out under conditions
laboratories)

b

Experiment

Formative

(provides for the purposeful influence of the experimenter on the studied mental phenomenon)

stating

(limited to stating changes in the studied
mental phenomena)

Rice. 6. Classification of types of experiment:

A – depending on the conditions of the experiment;
b - depending on the position of the experimenter in the study

Psychic Phenomena

Table 1.

Features of the use of laboratory and natural experiment

Laboratory experiment	natural experiment
Ensures high accuracy of results	Relative accuracy of results
Repeated studies under similar conditions are possible	Repeated studies under similar conditions are excluded.
Almost complete control over all variables	Lack of full control over all variables
The conditions of the activities of the subjects do not correspond to reality	Operating conditions correspond to reality
Subjects are aware that they are the subjects of the study.	Subjects are unaware that they are subjects of research

A psychological experiment, unlike observation, involves the possibility of activeinterference of the researcher in the activity of the subject (Table 2) .

table 2

Comparative analysis of observation and experiment

Observation	Experiment
Depending on the nature of the questions
The question remains open. The observer does not know the answer or has a vague idea about it.	The question becomes a hypothesis; implies the existence of some relationship between the facts. The experiment aims to test the hypothesis
Depending on the control of the situation
Observation situations are defined less strictly than in experiment. Transitional steps from natural to provoked observation	The situation of the experiment is clearly defined
Depending on registration accuracy
The procedure for recording the actions of the subject is less strict than in the experiment	The exact procedure for recording the actions of the subject

In the practice of psychological and legal research, both laboratory and natural experiments have become widespread. The laboratory experiment is widespread mainly in scientific research, as well as in the conduct of forensic psychological examination. When conducting a laboratory experiment, complex laboratory equipment is used (multichannel oscilloscopes, tachistoscopes, etc.).

With the help of a laboratory experiment, in particular, such professional quality lawyer, as attention, observability, etc. The natural experiment is widely used by officials involved in the fight against crime, primarily by investigators. However, its application should in no case go beyond the scope of criminal procedural norms. This refers to the conduct of investigative experiments, the purpose of which is to test certain psycho-physiological qualities of victims, witnesses and other persons. In difficult cases, it is recommended to invite a specialist psychologist to participate in them.

Conversation

Conversation – helper method obtaining information based on verbal (verbal) communication. The researcher asks questions, and the subject answers them. The form of the conversation can be a free or standardized survey (Fig. 7).

Standardized Poll

Free Poll

Errors in the formulation of questions are excluded

The resulting data is harder to compare with each other

The data obtained are easily comparable with each other.

Bears the imprint of artificiality (reminiscent of an oral questionnaire)

Allows you to flexibly adjust the research tactics, the content of the questions asked, and receive non-standard answers to them

Rice. 7. Features of the use of standardized and free survey

Standardized Poll− a survey characterized by a predetermined set and order of questions.

Free survey in form approaches the usual conversation and is natural, informal. It is also conducted according to a certain plan, and the main questions are developed in advance, but during the course of the survey, the researcher can ask additional questions, as well as modify the wording of the planned questions. A survey of this type allows you to flexibly adjust the research tactics, the content of the questions asked, and receive non-standard answers to them.

In legal practice, this type of conversation can be used as an anamnesis (an anamnesis is information about the past of the subject, obtained from him or, with an objective anamnesis, from people who know him well).

A casual conversation allows the investigator to study the main personality traits of the interlocutor, develop an individual approach and make contact with the interrogated. Such a conversation very often precedes the main part of the interrogation and the achievement of the main goal - obtaining objective and complete information about the crime event. During the conversation, the investigator should pay attention to establishing personal contact with the interlocutor. A climate favorable for conversation is created by:

1. clear, concise and meaningful introductory phrases and explanations;
2. showing respect for the personality of the interlocutor, attention to his opinion and interests;
3. positive remarks (any person has positive qualities);
4. a skillful manifestation of expression (tone, timbre of voice, intonation, facial expressions, etc.), which is designed to confirm a person’s conviction in what is being discussed, his interest in the issues raised.

Conversation of the psychologist of the department internal organs with the victim as a result of the crime can and should cause a psychotherapeutic effect. Understanding the emotional states of another person, expressing sympathy for him, the ability to put yourself in his place, demonstrating sympathetic attention to the vital needs of a person - important condition contact with the interlocutor.

Conducting a conversation is a great art that both psychologists and lawyers must master. This method requires special flexibility and clarity, the ability to listen to the interlocutor, understand his emotional states, respond to their changes, fix the external manifestations of these states. In addition, the conversation helps the lawyer to demonstrate his positive qualities, the desire to objectively understand certain phenomena. The conversation is an important tool for establishing and maintaining psychological contact with witnesses, suspects, etc.

Questionnaire

Questionnaire - this is a collection of facts on the basis of a written self-report of the subject according to a specially compiled program. Questionnaire is a questionnaire with a pre-compiled system of questions, each of which is logically related to the central hypothesisresearch. The survey procedure includes three stages:

1 . Determination of the content of the questionnaire. This may be a list of questions about the facts of life, interests, motives, assessments, relationships.

2 . Choice of question type. Questions are divided into open, closed and semi-closed.Open questionsallow the subject to build a response in accordance with their desires, both in content and in form. Processing responses to open-ended questions is difficult, but they allow you to discover completely unexpected and unintended judgments.Closed questionsprovide for the choice of one or more answer options placed in the questionnaire. These kinds of responses are easily processed quantitatively.Semi-closed questionsinvolves the choice of one or more answer options from a number of proposed ones, at the same time, the subject is given the opportunity to independently formulate an answer to the question. The type of question can affect the completeness and sincerity of the answer.

3. Determine the number and order of questions to be asked.

When compiling the questionnaire, a number of general rules and principles should be followed:

1. the wording of questions should be clear and precise, their content understandable to the respondent, consistent with his knowledge and education;
2. complex and polysemantic words should be excluded;
3. there should not be too many questions, as interest is lost due to increasing fatigue;

1. include questions that test the degree of sincerity.

The method of questioning is widely used in the study of the professiogram of officials, their professional suitability and professional deformation. Currently, this method is widely used to study some aspects of the causes of crime (for example, the mechanism of formation of criminal intent, etc.).

Test method

Testing is the collection of facts about psychic reality using standardized tools - tests.

Test - a method of psychological measurement, consisting of a series of brief tasks and aimed at diagnosing the individual severity of personality traits and states . With the help of tests, you can study and compare the psychological characteristics of different people, give differentiated and comparable assessments.

Depending on the area to be diagnosed, there are intellectual tests; achievement and special ability tests; personality tests; tests of interests, attitudes, tests that diagnose interpersonal relationships etc. There are a large number of tests aimed at assessing personality, abilities and behavioral characteristics.

There are the following types of tests:

1. test questionnaire - is based on a system of preconceived, carefully

carefully selected and tested for validity and reliability

questions, the answers to which can be used to judge the level of severity of personality traits;

1. test task - includes a series of special tasks, following the results

the implementation of which is judged on the presence (absence) and the level of severity of the studied properties;

1. projective test- it contains a projection mechanism, according to

to which a person tends to attribute unconscious self-qualities to the unstructured stimulus material of the test, such as inkblots. In various manifestations of a person, whether it be creativity, interpretation of events, statements, etc., his personality is embodied, including hidden, unconscious impulses, aspirations, experiences, conflicts. Test material can be interpreted in a variety of ways, where the main thing is not its objective content, but the subjective meaning, the attitude that it causes in a person. It should be remembered that projective tests impose increased requirements on the level of education, intellectual maturity of the individual, and also require high professionalism on the part of the researcher.

The development and use of any tests must meet the following basic requirements:

1. standardization, consisting in the creation of a uniform procedure for conducting and evaluating the implementation test tasks(linear or non-linear transformation of test scores, the meaning of which is to replace the original scores with new ones, derivatives that make it easier to understand the test results, using the methods of mathematical statistics);
2. reliability, meaning the consistency of the indicators obtained from the same subjects during repeated testing (retest) using the same test or its equivalent form;
3. validity (adequacy) - the extent to which the test measures exactly what it is intended for;
4. practicality, those. economy, simplicity, efficiency of use and practical value for many various situations(subjects) and activities.

The features of the test include poor predictability, “attachment” of the results to a specific testing situation, the attitude of the subject to the procedure and the researcher, the dependence of the results on the state of the person being studied (fatigue, stress, irritability, etc.).

The results of the test, as a rule, give only an actual cut of the quality being measured, while most of the characteristics of personality and behavior are capable of changing dynamically. Thus, testing a person accused of committing a crime (being in a pre-trial detention center), when solving the problems of a forensic psychological examination, can give an incorrect, distorted idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe personality in connection with a state of anxiety, possible depression, despair, anger, etc.

The use of tests by specialists implies that they comply with a number of procedural requirements, which a lawyer should be aware of when evaluating the test results set forth in the act of forensic psychological examination. Testing should be carried out in favorable conditions for the subject in terms of time, the situation of the examination, his well-being, the attitude of the psychologist towards him, professionally competently setting tasks for him and conducting the examination.

Deviations from these mandatory requirements may indicate insufficient scientific competence of a specialist psychologist and adversely affect the assessment of his conclusion by the court.

Method of expert assessments

Method of expert assessmentsconsists in conducting by experts an intuitive-logical analysis of the problem with a quantitatively justified judgment and formal processing of the results.

One of the most important points in using this method is the choice of experts. Experts can be persons who know the subject well and the problem being studied: a juvenile inspector, parents, friends, etc. Expert review is derived in the form of a quantitative assessment of the severity of the studied properties. The researcher summarizes and analyzes the assessments of experts.

In legal practice, this method allows you to collect as much independent information as possible about the personality of the accused in order to form an objective opinion about him. So, for example, in order to fully characterize the accused, one characteristic from his last place of work is not enough. Therefore, it is very important for the investigation to consider the characteristics from the places where the accused studied or worked, the opinion of neighbors, work colleagues, relatives and acquaintances about him.

Method of analysis of the process and products of activity

This method involves the study of the materialized results of a person's mental activity, the material products of his previous activity. In the products of activity, a person’s attitude to the activity itself, to the world around is manifested, the level of development of intellectual, sensory, motor skills is reflected. This method is most often used as an auxiliary one, since on its basis it is not always possible to reveal the whole variety of human mental activity. In legal practice, the method of analyzing the process and products of activity, in conjunction with other methods, is used to study the identity of wanted criminals. So, according to the results of criminal activity, they judge not only the degree of social danger of the deed, but also certain characterological features of the personality, the mental state of the accused at the time of the crime, the motives for the crime, intellectual abilities, etc.

biographical method

biographical method− this is a way of researching and designing the life path of a person, based on the study of documents of her biography (personal diaries, correspondence, etc.). The biographical method involves the use of the content analysis method as a method of quantitative and qualitative processing of documentation.

In legal practice, the purpose of this method is to collect information about facts and events of psychological significance in a person's life, from the moment of birth to the period that interests the investigator and the court. During the interrogation of witnesses who know the subject well, and during a conversation with him, the investigator himself finds out the information necessary for the investigation: about his parents, about his relationship with others, work, interests, inclinations, character, past diseases, injuries. In necessary cases, various medical documents, personal files, diaries, letters, etc. are studied.

For future lawyers, teachers of law, the study and application of the methods of scientific psychology is of great practical value. They are essential in working with adolescents, social groups, personnel; in addition, they help to build professional, business and everyday interpersonal relationships correctly, and are also designed to help in self-knowledge in order to rationally approach one's own destiny and personal growth.

Have you ever wondered how a psychologist can help you become happier and more successful?

A psychologist is a specialist with a higher humanitarian education, a person who listens, talks with you, helps you get out of a difficult situation. life situation. He is not a doctor and does not prescribe you any medications. A psychologist is able to understand you and help you cope with difficulties with the least effort and means. Only if the case is really severe, the psychologist himself will advise you to contact a psychiatrist - a doctor with a special medical education who uses drugs in treatment and is not interested in internal state patient. And yet, the variety of different methods of the acting psychologist in most cases helps to find a solution for any issue, the resolution of any life situation.

Each psychologist in the arsenal has favorite techniques that he uses to help the client. These can be both author's methods developed by him, and methods developed by the classics of psychology or colleagues.

Special exercises that are aimed at understanding your inner life, feelings, fears will help you understand the cause of the problem and choose effective method solutions without any medical treatment. Clients of psychologists are ordinary people who find it difficult to find a solution in a life situation on their own. People often seek help because of insecurity, complexes, fears, depression, phobias, psychosomatic illnesses and other psychological problems.

In the areas of psychology that I use in my practice, the influence of a psychologist on a person who has asked for help is minimal. Each person is an individual, a person. In each, along with the problem, there is also a solution. My task as a psychologist is to help you see your own solution, to find within yourself the most energy-efficient, most acceptable and efficient way to achieve the desired result.

The human body is a self-sufficient system, and if there is a violation, then there is a recipe for a solution. It is enough just to listen to the inner feelings. The techniques and methods that I use in my work are based on the contact of a person with his subconscious. It is your subconscious mind that knows the solution to your situation, and it is this solution that you and I find in a practical session - that which is most suitable in this situation. This is NOT suggestion or hypnosis. These are effective and simple methods that help to get desired result both directly during the session and after classes. Many of them can become your daily tool for understanding your own Soul.

I will briefly talk about the methods that I use in practice sessions.

Symboldrama is a method of "waking dreams", a journey of the subconscious through specially created scenarios. The symbol drama uses a special way of working with the imagination in order to make visible the unconscious desires of a person, his fantasies, conflicts and defense mechanisms. This method is used for the short-term treatment of neuroses and psychosomatic diseases, in the treatment of eating disorders, behavioral problems and social adaptation, to get rid of fears, in order to cope with grief, loss loved one, to develop confidence in decision-making, to know oneself and one's capabilities, to improve relationships with others.

Art therapy is healing through any artistic creation. These are all types of drawing (drawing, painting, graphics, monotype, etc.), mosaics and collages, working with plaster and body art, modeling, photography, music therapy, dance therapy, ethnotherapy, drama therapy, fairy tale therapy, etc. Classes contribute to a clearer, more subtle expression of their experiences, problems, internal contradictions, as well as creative self-expression. In creativity, the embodiment of fears, fears, ideas into a material form, into a creative masterpiece takes place brighter and more clearly. Art therapy techniques help to get rid of stress, depression, emotional pain, solve family problems, promote behavior change, and activate creative forces. Art therapy is successfully used when working with children and adults.

In the classroom, we jointly solve your problem, and after the sessions you have a skill that you can use in the future to work with other problems and life situations.

All techniques used allow you to influence inner world person and at the same time do not injure consciousness. In some cases, it is not even necessary to tell the situation if you do not want to. Results are fast or very fast. Depending on the depth of the problem and the time spent in it, it will take from 1 to 10 sessions. The more sessions, the deeper the study of problems and emotional states. The more durable results.

Thanks to the power of imagination, man, the only one of all living beings, can be stronger than nature. We imagine our future and remember the past as reality. We can imagine people who have not been on earth for a long time, we can be transported into the distant future, when we will no longer be. This is how images make us stronger than death. Working with images - the language of our subconscious - helps us understand ourselves, look into the innermost depths of the soul, decide serious problems and conflicts. Managing images, one's perception, one's consciousness makes a person the master of his life, allows him to achieve his desired goals, get rid of diseases, feel strong, happy and successful.

Do not expect favors from nature, take your destiny into your own hands, take a step towards a better life!

Olga Leontyeva, transformational coach, psychologist, bioenergy practitioner

2. One of the most important varieties of human activity is military activity. Its goals are set out in the Federal Law Russian Federation"On defense". These include the repulse of aggression directed against our country, the armed defense of the integrity and inviolability of the territory of the Russian Federation, and the fulfillment of tasks in accordance with international treaties.

Conventionally, military activity can be divided into three main types: combat, combat training and everyday.

combat activity- This is the main type of military activity. It is carried out in the course of hostilities, the main types of which are offensive and defense.

Combat training activities(it is carried out in order to ensure successful combat activities) consists of a system of measures for the training and education of military personnel and the preparation of subunits and units for joint military operations. In its process, military personnel conduct classes and training in various subjects of training, live firing, as well as exercises - the most effective form of field, naval and air training of personnel.

daily activities covers almost all other aspects of the life of military personnel. In each military unit, it is carried out in accordance with the requirements of the general military regulations of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation. They regulate this activity in order to maintain in subdivisions and units internal order and disciplines that provide high combat readiness, the study of military personnel, the organized performance of other tasks and the preservation of the health of personnel. Fulfillment of their duties in daily activities helps the soldiers to endure severe trials in a combat situation.

Military activities place high demands on servicemen in terms of professional training, education, health status, physical fitness and psychological stability.

Ticket number 23

1. The main elements of human life. The importance of the regime of work and rest for the harmonious development of a person, his spiritual and physical qualities.

1.B basis healthy lifestyle life is the correct organization of life, which involves a reasonable alternation of the main elements: work, rest, nutrition and sleep.

The quality and duration of sleep are important for human life. Fast falling asleep, calm and deep sleep are facilitated by a constant bedtime, walks in the fresh air, dinner 2-3 hours before bedtime, Fresh air, comfortable temperature, cleanliness and silence in the bedroom.

Nutrition is one of the most important functions of any living organism. It is of great importance for every person. Non-compliance with the diet (time and number of meals) leads to disruption of the functions of the digestive system, to a decrease or increase in appetite, and then to various diseases associated with metabolism.

The mode of work and rest is the correct alternation of periods of work and rest, their duration, rational distribution of time V during the day, week, month, year.

One of the fundamental principles of the regime is its strict implementation, the inadmissibility of frequent changes. If there is a need to transition to a new regime, then such a transition should be gradual. These requirements are due to the fact that the body gets used to a certain rhythm, it develops a system of conditioned reflexes that facilitate the performance of certain of its functions.

The second principle of the regime is that all types of activities planned in it should be feasible for the body and not exceed the working capacity of brain cells, and rest should ensure their full recovery.

Free time can be spent in different ways, depending on interests. It is important that it must have an active action component.

Any violation of the regime leads to a breakdown in the well-established system of reflexes, and this can lead to negative changes in the state of health, primarily fatigue and overwork.